tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-76357496935533872712024-02-19T01:43:40.754-08:0009RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.comBlogger13125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-54987192137539524432011-07-09T11:19:00.000-07:002011-07-09T11:20:44.272-07:00Projection (plain) radiography Madura Foot X-Ray Main article: Projectional radiographyRadiographs (or roentgenographs, named after the discoverer of x-rays, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen) are produced by the transmission of x-rays through a patient to a capture device then converted into an image for diagnosis. The original and still common imaging produces silver impregnated films. In Film-Screen radiography an x-ray tube generates a beam of x-rays which is aimed at the patient. The x-rays which pass through the patient are filtered to reduce scatter and noise and then strike an undeveloped film, held tight to a screen of light emitting phosphors in a light-tight cassette. The film is then developed chemically and an image appears on the film. Now replacing Film-Screen radiography is Digital Radiography, DR, in which x-rays strike a plate of sensors which then converts the signals generated into digital information and an image on computer screen. Plain radiography was the only imaging modality available during the first 50 years of radiology. Due to its availability, speed, and lower costs compared to other modalities, radiography is often the first-line test of choice in radiologic diagnosis.<br />[edit] Fluoroscopy<br />Main article: Fluoroscopy<br /><br />Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and image intensifier tube is connected to a closed-circuit television system.[1]:26 This allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Radiocontrast agents are administered, often swallowed or injected into the body of the patient, to delineate anatomy and functioning of the blood vessels, the genitourinary system or the gastrointestinal tract. Two radiocontrasts are presently in use. Barium (as BaSO4) may be given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple proprietary forms, may be given by oral, rectal, intraarterial or intravenous routes. These radiocontrast agents strongly absorb or scatter X-ray radiation, and in conjunction with the real-time imaging allows demonstration of dynamic processes, such as peristalsis in the digestive tract or blood flow in arteries and veins. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in abnormal areas more or less than in normal tissues and make abnormalities (tumors, cysts, inflammation) more conspicuous. Additionally, in specific circumstances air can be used as a contrast agent for the gastrointestinal system and carbon dioxide can be used as a contrast agent in the venous system; in these cases, the contrast agent attenuates the X-ray radiation less than the surrounding tissues.<br />[edit] Interventional radiology<br />Main article: Interventional radiology<br /><br />Interventional radiology (abbreviated IR or sometimes VIR for vascular and interventional radiology) is a subspecialty of radiology in which minimally invasive procedures are performed using image guidance. Some of these procedures are done for purely diagnostic purposes (e.g., angiogram), while others are done for treatment purposes (e.g., angioplasty).<br /><br />The basic concept behind interventional radiology is to diagnose or treat pathology, with the most minimally invasive technique possible. Interventional radiologists diagnose and treat several disorders including peripheral vascular disease, renal artery stenosis, inferior vena cava filter placement, gastrostomy tube placements, biliary stents and hepatic interventions. Images are used for guidance and the primary instruments used during the procedure are needles and tiny tubes called catheters. The images provide road maps that allow the interventional radiologist to guide these instruments through the body to the areas containing disease. By minimizing the physical trauma to the patient, peripheral interventions can reduce infection rates and recovery time as well as shorten hospital stays. To be a trained interventionalist in the United States, an individual completes a five year residency in Radiology and a two year fellowship in Interventional Radiology.[2]<br />[edit] Computed tomography (CT)<br />Main article: X-ray computed tomography<br />Image from a CT scan of the brain<br /><br />CT imaging uses X-rays in conjunction with computing algorithms to image the body.[3] In CT, an X-ray generating tube opposite an X-ray detector (or detectors) in a ring shaped apparatus rotate around a patient producing a computer generated cross-sectional image (tomogram). CT is acquired in the axial plane, while coronal and sagittal images can be rendered by computer reconstruction. Radiocontrast agents are often used with CT for enhanced delineation of anatomy. Although radiographs provide higher spatial resolution, CT can detect more subtle variations in attenuation of X-rays. CT exposes the patient to more ionizing radiation than a radiograph.<br /><br />Spiral Multi-detector CT uses 8, 16, 64 or more detectors during continuous motion of the patient through the radiation beam to obtain much finer detail images in a shorter exam time. With rapid administration of IV contrast during the CT scan these fine detail images can be reconstructed into 3D images of carotid, cerebral, coronary or other arteries.<br /><br />CT scanning has become the test of choice in diagnosing some urgent and emergent conditions such as cerebral hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism (clots in the arteries of the lungs), aortic dissection (tearing of the aortic wall), appendicitis, diverticulitis, and obstructing kidney stones. Continuing improvements in CT technology including faster scanning times and improved resolution have dramatically increased the accuracy and usefulness of CT scanning which may partially account for increased use in medical diagnosis.<br /><br />The first commercially viable CT scanner was invented by Sir Godfrey Hounsfield at EMI Central Research Labs, Great Britain in 1972. EMI owned the distribution rights to The Beatles music and it was their profits which funded the research.[4] Sir Hounsfield and Alan McLeod McCormick shared the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1979 for the invention of CT scanning. The first CT scanner in North America was installed at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, MN in 1972.<br />[edit] Ultrasound<br />Main article: Ultrasound<br /><br />Medical ultrasonography uses ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) to visualize soft tissue structures in the body in real time. No ionizing radiation is involved, but the quality of the images obtained using ultrasound is highly dependent on the skill of the person (ultrasonographer) performing the exam. Ultrasound is also limited by its inability to image through air (lungs, bowel loops) or bone. The use of ultrasound in medical imaging has developed mostly within the last 30 years. The first ultrasound images were static and two dimensional (2D), but with modern-day ultrasonography 3D reconstructions can be observed in real-time; effectively becoming 4D.<br /><br />Because ultrasound does not use ionizing radiation, unlike radiography, CT scans, and nuclear medicine imaging techniques, it is generally considered safer. For this reason, this modality plays a vital role in obstetrical imaging. Fetal anatomic development can be thoroughly evaluated allowing early diagnosis of many fetal anomalies. Growth can be assessed over time, important in patients with chronic disease or gestation-induced disease, and in multiple gestations (twins, triplets etc.). Color-Flow Doppler Ultrasound measures the severity of peripheral vascular disease and is used by Cardiology for dynamic evaluation of the heart, heart valves and major vessels. Stenosis of the carotid arteries can presage cerebral infarcts (strokes). DVT in the legs can be found via ultrasound before it dislodges and travels to the lungs (pulmonary embolism), which can be fatal if left untreated. Ultrasound is useful for image-guided interventions like biopsies and drainages such as thoracentesis). Small portable ultrasound devices now replace peritoneal lavage in the triage of trauma victims by directly assessing for the presence of hemorrhage in the peritoneum and the integrity of the major viscera including the liver, spleen and kidneys. Extensive hemoperitoneum (bleeding inside the body cavity) or injury to the major organs may require emergent surgical exploration and repair.<br />[edit] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)<br />Main article: Magnetic resonance imaging<br />Image from an MRI examination of the knee with a displaced patella<br /><br />MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen protons) within body tissues, then uses a radio signal to disturb the axis of rotation of these nuclei and observes the radio frequency signal generated as the nuclei return to their baseline states. The radio signals are collected by small antennae, called coils, placed near the area of interest. An advantage of MRI is its ability to produce images in axial, coronal, sagittal and multiple oblique planes with equal ease. MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all the imaging modalities. With advances in scanning speed and spatial resolution, and improvements in computer 3D algorithms and hardware, MRI has become an important tool in musculoskeletal radiology and neuroradiology.<br /><br />One disadvantage is that the patient has to hold still for long periods of time in a noisy, cramped space while the imaging is performed. Claustrophobia severe enough to terminate the MRI exam is reported in up to 5% of patients. Recent improvements in magnet design including stronger magnetic fields (3 teslas), shortening exam times, wider, shorter magnet bores and more open magnet designs, have brought some relief for claustrophobic patients. However, in magnets of equal field strength there is often a trade-off between image quality and open design. MRI has great benefit in imaging the brain, spine, and musculoskeletal system. The modality is currently contraindicated for patients with pacemakers, cochlear implants, some indwelling medication pumps, certain types of cerebral aneurysm clips, metal fragments in the eyes and some metallic hardware due to the powerful magnetic fields and strong fluctuating radio signals the body is exposed to. Areas of potential advancement include functional imaging, cardiovascular MRI, as well as MR image guided therapy.<br />[edit] Nuclear medicine<br />Main article: Nuclear medicine<br /><br />Nuclear medicine imaging involves the administration into the patient of radiopharmaceuticals consisting of substances with affinity for certain body tissues labeled with radioactive tracer. The most commonly used tracers are Technetium-99m, Iodine-123, Iodine-131, Gallium-67 and Thallium-201 and 18F-FDG. The heart, lungs, thyroid, liver, gallbladder, and bones are commonly evaluated for particular conditions using these techniques. While anatomical detail is limited in these studies, nuclear medicine is useful in displaying physiological function. The excretory function of the kidneys, iodine concentrating ability of the thyroid, blood flow to heart muscle, etc. can be measured. The principal imaging device is the gamma camera which detects the radiation emitted by the tracer in the body and displays it as an image. With computer processing, the information can be displayed as axial, coronal and sagittal images (SPECT images, single-photon emission computed tomography). In the most modern devices Nuclear Medicine images can be fused with a CT scan taken quasi-simultaneously so that the physiological information can be overlaid or co-registered with the anatomical structures to improve diagnostic accuracy.<br /><br />Positron emission tomography (PET), scanning is a nuclear medicine procedure that deals with positrons. The positrons annihilate to produce two opposite traveling gamma rays to be detected coincidentally, thus improving resolution. In PET scanning, a radioactive, biologically active substance, most often Fludeoxyglucose (18F), is injected into a patient and the radiation emitted by the patient is detected to produce multi-planar images of the body. Metabolically more active tissues, such as cancer, concentrate the active substance more than normal tissues. PET images can be combined (or "fused") with an anatomic imaging study (currently generally CT images), to more accurately localize PET findings and thereby improve diagnostic accuracy.<br /><br />The fusion technology has gone further to combine PET and MRI similar to PET and CT. PET/MRI fusion, largely practiced in academic and research settings, could potentially play a crucial role in fine detail of brain imaging, breast cancer screening and small joint imaging of foot. The technology recently blossomed following passing a technical hurdle of altered positron movement in strong magnetic field thus affecting the resolution of PET images and attenuation correction.<br />[edit] Teleradiology<br />Main article: Teleradiology<br /><br />Teleradiology is the transmission of radiographic images from one location to another for interpretation by a radiologist. It is most often used to allow rapid interpretation of emergency room, ICU and other emergent examinations after hours of usual operation, at night and on weekends. In these cases the images are often sent across time zones (i.e. to Spain, Australia, India) with the receiving radiologist working his normal daylight hours. Teleradiology can also be use to obtain consultation with an expert or sub-specialist about a complicated or puzzling case.<br /><br />Teleradiology requires a sending station, high speed Internet connection and high quality receiving station. At the transmission station, plain radiographs are passed through a digitizing machine before transmission, while CT scans, MRIs, Ultrasounds and Nuclear Medicine scans can be sent directly as they are already a stream of digital data. The computer at the receiving end will need to have a high-quality display screen that has been tested and cleared for clinical purposes. Reports are then transmitted to the requesting physician.<br /><br />The major advantage of teleradiology is the ability to use different time zones to provide real-time emergency radiology services around-the-clock. The disadvantages include higher costs, limited contact between the ordering physician and the radiologist, and the inability to cover for procedures requiring an onsite radiologist. Laws and regulations concerning the use of teleradiology vary among the states, with some states requiring a license to practice medicine in the state sending the radiologic exam. Some states require the teleradiology report to be preliminary with the official report issued by a hospital staff radiologist.<br />[edit] Radiologist training<br />[edit] United States<br /><br />Radiology is an expanding field in medicine. Applying for residency positions in radiology has become increasingly competitive. Applicants are often near the top of their medical school class, with high USMLE (board) scores. The field is rapidly expanding due to advances in computer technology, which is closely linked to modern imaging. Diagnostic radiologists must complete prerequisite undergraduate education, 4 years of medical school, one year of internship, and 4 years of residency training. After residency, radiologists often pursue one or two years of additional specialty fellowship training.<br /><br />The radiology resident must pass a medical physics board exam during training covering the science, technology and radiobiology of ultrasound, CTs, x-rays, nuclear medicine and MRI. Near the completion of residency, the radiologist in training may be deemed eligible to "sit for the Boards", take the written and oral board examinations administered by the American Board of Radiology (ABR). Certification may also be obtained from the American Osteopathic Board of Radiology (AOBR) and the American Board of Physician Specialties (ABPS). Starting in 2010, the ABR's oral board examination structure will be changed to include two computer-based exams, one given after the third year of residency training, and the second given 18 months after the first oral exam. To complete the oral section of the ABR certification, a radiologist must pass each of the eleven sections. An applicant who passes fewer than eight sections has failed and must re-take the entire exam. An applicant who passes at least eight of the eleven sections of the ABR oral boards is considered "conditioned" and can retake the last three or fewer sections again at a later date to become ABR certified. Once successful in passing all sections, the physician then becomes a diplomate of the American Board of Radiology.<br /><br />Following completion of residency training, radiologists may either begin practicing or enter into sub-specialty training programs known as fellowships. Examples of sub-speciality training in radiology include abdominal imaging, thoracic imaging, cross sectional/ultrasound, MRI, musculoskeletal imaging, interventional radiology, neuroradiology, interventional neuroradiology, paediatric radiology, nuclear medicine, emergency radiology, breast imaging and women's imaging. Fellowship training programs in radiology are usually 1 or 2 years in length.[5]<br /><br />Several medical schools in the US have started to incorporate radiology education into their core MD training. New York Medical College, The Wayne State University School of Medicine, and the University of South Carolina School of Medicine offer integrated radiology curriculum during their respective MD Programs.[6][7][8][9]<br /><br />Radiographic exams are usually performed by radiologic technologists, (also known as diagnostic radiographers) who in the United States have a 2-year Associates Degree or 4 year Bachelors of Science Degree and, in the UK, a 3 year Honours Degree.<br /><br />Veterinary radiologists are veterinarians that specialize in the use of X-rays, ultrasound, MRI and nuclear medicine for diagnostic imaging or treatment of disease in animals. They are certified in either diagnostic radiology or radiation oncology by the American College of Veterinary Radiology.RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-1702630949444128082011-06-19T01:31:00.000-07:002011-06-19T01:50:15.036-07:00JENIS DETEKTOR RADIASIDefinisi<br /><br />Detektor merupakan suatu bahan yang peka terhadap radiasi, yang bila dikenai radiasi akan menghasilkan tanggapan mengikuti mekanisme yang telah dibahas sebelumnya. Perlu diperhatikan bahwa suatu bahan yang sensitif terhadap suatu jenis radiasi belum tentu sensitif terhadap jenis radiasi yang lain. Sebagai contoh, detektor radiasi gamma belum tentu dapat mendeteksi radiasi neutron.<br /><br />JENIS-JENIS DETEKTOR<br /><br />1. Detektor Isian Gas<br /><br />Detektor isian gas merupakan detektor yang paling sering digunakan untuk kedua elektrodanya. Elektroda positif disebut sebagai anoda, yang mengukur radiasi. <br />Detektor ini terdiri dari dua elektroda, positif dan negatif, serta berisi gas di antara dihubungkan ke kutub listrik positif, sedangkan elektroda negatif disebut sebagai katoda, yang dihubungkan ke kutub negatif. Kebanyakan detektor ini berbentuk silinder dengan sumbu yang berfungsi sebagai anoda dan dinding silindernya sebagai katoda sebagaimana berikut.<br /> <br />Radiasi yang memasuki detektor akan mengionisasi gas dan menghasilkan ion-ion positif dan ion-ion negatif (elektron). Jumlah ion yang akan dihasilkan tersebut sebanding dengan energi radiasi dan berbanding terbalik dengan daya ionisasi gas. Daya ionisasi gas berkisar dari 25 eV s.d. 40 eV. Ion-ion yang dihasilkan di dalam detektor tersebut akan memberikan kontribusi terbentuknya pulsa listrik ataupun arus listrik.<br /> <br />Ion-ion primer yang dihasilkan oleh radiasi akan bergerak menuju elektroda yang sesuai. Pergerakan ion-ion tersebut akan menimbulkan pulsa atau arus listrik. Pergerakan ion tersebut di atas dapat berlangsung bila di antara dua elektroda terdapat cukup medan listrik. Bila medan listriknya semakin tinggi maka energi kinetik ion-ion tersebut akan semakin besar sehingga mampu untuk mengadakan ionisasi lain.<br /> <br />Ion-ion yang dihasilkan oleh ion primer disebut sebagai ion sekunder. Bila medan listrik di antara dua elektroda semakin tinggi maka jumlah ion yang dihasilkan oleh sebuah radiasi akan sangat banyak dan disebut proses ‘avalanche’. <br />Terdapat tiga jenis detektor isian gas yang bekerja pada daerah yang berbeda yaitu detektor kamar ionisasi, detektor proporsional, dan detektor Geiger Mueller (GM).<br /><br />• Detektor Kamar Ionisasi (ionization chamber)<br /><br />Sebagaimana terlihat pada kurva karakteristik gas di atas, jumlah ion yang dihasilkan di daerah ini relatif sedikit sehingga tinggi pulsanya, bila menerapkan pengukuran model pulsa, sangat rendah. <br />Oleh karena itu, biasanya, pengukuran yang menggunakan detektor ionisasi menerapkan cara arus. Bila akan menggunakan detektor ini dengan cara pulsa maka dibutuhkan penguat pulsa yang sangat baik. Keuntungan detektor ini adalah dapat membedakan energi yang memasukinya dan tegangan kerja yang dibutuhkan tidak terlalu tinggi. <br /><br />• Detektor Proporsional<br /><br />Dibandingkan dengan daerah ionisasi di atas, jumlah ion yang dihasilkan di daerah proporsional ini lebih banyak sehingga tinggi pulsanya akan lebih tinggi. Detektor ini lebih sering digunakan untuk pengukuran dengan cara pulsa.<br />Terlihat pada kurva karakteristik di atas bahwa jumlah ion yang dihasilkan sebanding dengan energi radiasi, sehingga detektor ini dapat membedakan energi radiasi. Akan tetapi, yang merupakan suatu kerugian, jumlah ion atau tinggi pulsa yang dihasilkan sangat dipengaruhi oleh tegangan kerja dan daya tegangan untuk detektor ini harus sangat stabil. <br /><br />• Detektor Geiger Mueller (GM)<br /><br />Jumlah ion yang dihasilkan di daerah ini sangat banyak, mencapai nilai saturasinya, sehingga pulsanya relatif tinggi dan tidak memerlukan penguat pulsa lagi. <br />Kerugian utama dari detektor ini ialah tidak dapat membedakan energi radiasi yang memasukinya, karena berapapun energinya jumlah ion yang dihasilkannya sama dengan nilai saturasinya. <br />Detektor ini merupakan detektor yang paling sering digunakan, karena dari segi elektonik sangat sederhana, tidak perlu menggunakan rangkaian penguat. Sebagian besar peralatan ukur proteksi radiasi, yang harus bersifat portabel, terbuat dari detektor Geiger Mueller.<br /><br /><br />2. Detektor Sintilasi<br />Detektor sintilasi selalu terdiri dari dua bagian yaitu bahan sintilator dan photomultiplier. Bahan sintilator merupakan suatu bahan padat, cair maupun gas, yang akan menghasilkan percikan cahaya bila dikenai radiasi pengion. Photomultiplier digunakan untuk mengubah percikan cahaya yang dihasilkan bahan sintilator menjadi pulsa listrik. <br />Mekanisme pendeteksian radiasi pada detektor sintilasi dapat dibagi menjadi dua tahap yaitu :<br />1. proses pengubahan radiasi yang mengenai detektor menjadi percikan cahaya di dalam bahan sintilator dan<br />2. proses pengubahan percikan cahaya menjadi pulsa listrik di dalam tabung photomultiplier<br /><br />• Bahan Sintilator<br /><br />Proses sintilasi pada bahan ini dapat dijelaskan dengan Gambar 4. Di dalam kristal bahan sintilator terdapat pita-pita atau daerah yang dinamakan sebagai pita valensi dan pita konduksi yang dipisahkan dengan tingkat energi tertentu. <br />Pada keadaan dasar, ground state, seluruh elektron berada di pita valensi sedangkan di pita konduksi kosong. Ketika terdapat radiasi yang memasuki kristal, terdapat kemungkinan bahwa energinya akan terserap oleh beberapa elektron di pita valensi, sehingga dapat meloncat ke pita konduksi. <br />Beberapa saat kemudian elektron-elektron tersebut akan kembali ke pita valensi melalui pita energi bahan aktivator sambil memancarkan percikan cahaya.<br /> <br />Jumlah percikan cahaya sebanding dengan energi radiasi diserap dan dipengaruhi oleh jenis bahan sintilatornya. Semakin besar energinya semakin banyak percikan cahayanya. Percikan-percikan cahaya ini kemudian ‘ditangkap’ oleh photomultiplier.<br /> Berikut ini adalah beberapa contoh bahan sintilator yang sering digunakan sebagai detektor radiasi.<br /><br />- Kristal NaI(Tl)<br />- Kristal ZnS(Ag)<br />- Kristal LiI(Eu)<br />- Sintilator Organik<br /><br />• Sintilator Cair (Liquid Scintillation)<br /><br />Detektor ini sangat spesial dibandingkan dengan jenis detektor yang lain karena berwujud cair. Sampel radioaktif yang akan diukur dilarutkan dahulu ke dalam sintilator cair ini sehingga sampel dan detektor menjadi satu kesatuan larutan yang homogen. <br />Secara geometri pengukuran ini dapat mencapai efisiensi 100 % karena semua radiasi yang dipancarkan sumber akan “ditangkap” oleh detektor. Metode ini sangat diperlukan untuk mengukur sampel yang memancar¬kan radiasi b berenergi rendah seperti tritium dan C14. <br /> <br />Masalah yang harus diperhatikan pada metode ini adalah quenching yaitu berkurangnya sifat transparan dari larutan (sintilator cair) karena mendapat campuran sampel. Semakin pekat konsentrasi sampel maka akan semakin buruk tingkat transparansinya sehingga percikan cahaya yang dihasilkan tidak dapat mencapai photomultiplier. <br /><br /><br />• Tabung Photomultiplier<br />Sebagaimana telah dibahas sebelumnya, setiap detektor sintilasi terdiri atas dua bagian yaitu bahan sintilator dan tabung photomultiplier. Bila bahan sintilator berfungsi untuk mengubah energi radiasi menjadi percikan cahaya maka tabung photomultiplier ini berfungsi untuk mengubah percikan cahaya tersebut menjadi berkas elektron, sehingga dapat diolah lebih lanjut sebagai pulsa / arus listrik.<br />Tabung photomultiplier terbuat dari tabung hampa yang kedap cahaya dengan photokatoda yang berfungsi sebagai masukan pada salah satu ujungnya dan terdapat beberapa dinode untuk menggandakan elektron seperti terdapat pada gambar 5. Photokatoda yang ditempelkan pada bahan sintilator, akan memancarkan elektron bila dikenai cahaya dengan panjang gelombang yang sesuai. Elektron yang dihasilkannya akan diarahkan, dengan perbedaan potensial, menuju dinode pertama. Dinode tersebut akan memancarkan beberapa elektron sekunder bila dikenai oleh elektron.<br /> <br />Elektron-elektron sekunder yang dihasilkan dinode pertama akan menuju dinode kedua dan dilipatgandakan kemudian ke dinode ketiga dan seterusnya sehingga elektron yang terkumpul pada dinode terakhir berjumlah sangat banyak. Dengan sebuah kapasitor kumpulan elektron tersebut akan diubah menjadi pulsa listrik.<br /> <br />3. Detektor Semikonduktor<br />Bahan semikonduktor, yang diketemukan relatif lebih baru daripada dua jenis detektor di atas, terbuat dari unsur golongan IV pada tabel periodik yaitu silikon atau germanium. Detektor ini mempunyai beberapa keunggulan yaitu lebih effisien dibandingkan dengan detektor isian gas, karena terbuat dari zat padat, serta mempunyai resolusi yang lebih baik daripada detektor sintilasi.<br /> <br />Pada dasarnya, bahan isolator dan bahan semikonduktor tidak dapat meneruskan arus listrik. Hal ini disebabkan semua elektronnya berada di pita valensi sedangkan di pita konduksi kosong. <br />Perbedaan tingkat energi antara pita valensi dan pita konduksi di bahan isolator sangat besar sehingga tidak memungkinkan elektron untuk berpindah ke pita konduksi ( > 5 eV ) seperti terlihat di atas. Sebaliknya, perbedaan tersebut relatif kecil pada bahan semikonduktor ( < 3 eV ) sehingga memungkinkan elektron untuk meloncat ke pita konduksi bila mendapat tambahan energi.<br />Energi radiasi yang memasuki bahan semikonduktor akan diserap oleh bahan sehingga beberapa elektronnya dapat berpindah dari pita valensi ke pita konduksi. Bila di antara kedua ujung bahan semikonduktor tersebut terdapat beda potensial maka akan terjadi aliran arus listrik. Jadi pada detektor ini, energi radiasi diubah menjadi energi listrik.<br /> <br />Sambungan semikonduktor dibuat dengan menyambungkan semikonduktor tipe N dengan tipe P (PN junction). Kutub positif dari tegangan listrik eksternal dihubungkan ke tipe N sedangkan kutub negatifnya ke tipe P seperti terlihat pada Gambar 7. <br />Hal ini menyebabkan pembawa muatan positif akan tertarik ke atas (kutub negatif) sedangkan pembawa muatan negatif akan tertarik ke bawah (kutub positif), sehingga terbentuk (depletion layer) lapisan kosong muatan pada sambungan PN. <br />Dengan adanya lapisan kosong muatan ini maka tidak akan terjadi arus listrik. Bila ada radiasi pengion yang memasuki lapisan kosong muatan ini maka akan terbentuk ion-ion baru, elektron dan hole, yang akan bergerak ke kutub-kutub positif dan negatif. Tambahan elektron dan hole inilah yang akan menyebabkan terbentuknya pulsa atau arus listrik.<br />Oleh karena daya atau energi yang dibutuhkan untuk menghasilkan ion-ion ini lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan proses ionisasi di gas, maka jumlah ion yang dihasilkan oleh energi yang sama akan lebih banyak. <br />Hal inilah yang menyebabkan detektor semikonduktor sangat teliti dalam membedakan energi radiasi yang mengenainya atau disebut mempunyai resolusi tinggi. Sebagai gambaran, detektor sintilasi untuk radiasi gamma biasanya mempunyai resolusi sebesar 50 keV, artinya, detektor ini dapat membedakan energi dari dua buah radiasi yang memasukinya bila kedua radiasi tersebut mempunyai perbedaan energi lebih besar daripada 50 keV. <br />Sedang detektor semikonduktor untuk radiasi gamma biasanya mempunyai resolusi 2 keV. Jadi terlihat bahwa detektor semikonduktor jauh lebih teliti untuk membedakan energi radiasi.<br />Sebenarnya, kemampuan untuk membedakan energi tidak terlalu diperlukan dalam pemakaian di lapangan, misalnya untuk melakukan survai radiasi. Akan tetapi untuk keperluan lain, misalnya untuk menentukan jenis radionuklida atau untuk menentukan jenis dan kadar bahan, kemampuan ini mutlak diperlukan.<br />Kelemahan dari detektor semikonduktor adalah harganya lebih mahal, pemakaiannya harus sangat hati-hati karena mudah rusak dan beberapa jenis detektor semikonduktor harus didinginkan pada temperatur Nitrogen cair sehingga memerlukan dewar yang berukuran cukup besar.<br /><br />2.3 KEUNGGULAN DAN KEKURANGAN DETEKTOR<br /><br />Dari pembahasan di atas terlihat bahwa setiap radiasi akan diubah menjadi sebuah pulsa listrik dengan ketinggian yang sebanding dengan energi radiasinya. Hal tersebut merupakan fenomena yang sangat ideal karena pada kenyataannya tidaklah demikian. <br />Terdapat beberapa karakteristik detektor yang membedakan satu jenis detektor dengan lainnya yaitu efisiensi, kecepatan dan resolusi.<br /><br /><br /><br />Efisiensi detektor adalah suatu nilai yang menunjukkan perbandingan antara jumlah pulsa listrik yang dihasilkan detektor terhadap jumlah radiasi yang diterimanya. Nilai efisiensi detektor sangat ditentukan oleh bentuk geometri dan densitas bahan detektor. <br />Bentuk geometri sangat menentukan jumlah radiasi yang dapat 'ditangkap' sehingga semakin luas permukaan detektor, efisiensinya semakin tinggi. Sedangkan densitas bahan detektor mempengaruhi jumlah radiasi yang dapat berinteraksi sehingga menghasilkan sinyal listrik. <br />Bahan detektor yang mempunyai densitas lebih rapat akan mempunyai efisiensi yang lebih tinggi karena semakin banyak radiasi yang berinteraksi dengan bahan.<br />Kecepatan detektor menunjukkan selang waktu antara datangnya radiasi dan terbentuknya pulsa listrik. Kecepatan detektor berinteraksi dengan radiasi juga sangat mempengaruhi pengukuran karena bila respon detektor tidak cukup cepat sedangkan intensitas radiasinya sangat tinggi maka akan banyak radiasi yang tidak terukur meskipun sudah mengenai detektor. <br />Resolusi detektor adalah kemampuan detektor untuk membedakan energi radiasi yang berdekatan. Suatu detektor diharapkan mempunyai resolusi yang sangat kecil (high resolution) sehingga dapat membedakan energi radiasi secara teliti. <br />Resolusi detektor disebabkan oleh peristiwa statistik yang terjadi dalam proses pengubahan energi radiasi, noise dari rangkaian elektronik, serta ketidak-stabilan kondisi pengukuran.<br />Aspek lain yang juga menjadi pertimbangan adalah konstruksi detektor karena semakin rumit konstruksi atau desainnya maka detektor tersebut akan semakin mudah rusak dan biasanya juga semakin mahal.<br />Tabel berikut menunjukkan karakteristik beberapa jenis detektor secara umum berdasarkan beberapa pertimbangan di atas.<br /><br /> <br />Pemilihan detektor harus mempertimbangkan spesifikasi keunggulan dan kelemahan sebagaimana tabel di atas. Sebagai contoh, detektor yang digunakan pada alat ukur portabel (mudah dibawa) sebaiknya adalah detektor isian gas, detektor yang digunakan pada alat ukur untuk radiasi alam (intensitas sangat rendah) sebaiknya adalah detektor sintilasi, sedangkan detektor pada sistem spektroskopi untuk menganalisis bahan sebaiknya detektor semikonduktor.RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-51169915682214309622011-06-17T04:37:00.000-07:002011-06-17T05:06:11.120-07:00KuLiah UmuM 2011<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LyTuJgJSjpM/TftC43rAoeI/AAAAAAAAAHQ/uW38Y2_cLkQ/s1600/IMG_1762.JPG"><img style="display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 400px; height: 267px;" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LyTuJgJSjpM/TftC43rAoeI/AAAAAAAAAHQ/uW38Y2_cLkQ/s400/IMG_1762.JPG" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5619158504859279842" border="0" /></a><br />Pada tanggal 25 mei ATRO UNBRAH mengadakan kuliah umum di aula kampus, dengan peserta para alumni, mahasiswa seluruh angkatan, para dosen, dan tamu undangan. dengan pembicara pimpinan ATRO DEPKES Semarang Bapak Drs. SUGIANTO, MApp. Sc dan perwakilan dari BURLIAN MUKNI SH. MKes.<br /><br />photo bersama di kuliah umum..RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-33226949948715353332011-06-07T05:48:00.004-07:002011-06-07T05:51:02.808-07:00HUBUNGAN ANTAR TULANG<!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:officedocumentsettings> <o:relyonvml/> <o:allowpng/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves>false</w:TrackMoves> <w:trackformatting/> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:donotpromoteqf/> 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text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Agar artikulasi tersebut dapat bergerak diperlukan struktur khusus yang dinamakan dengan sendi. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sendi dibentuk dari kartilago yang berada di daerah sendi.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Di dalam sistem rangka manusia terdapat tiga jenis hubungan antartulang, yaitu:<br />1.Sinartrosis yaitu sendi yang tidak dapat<span style=""> </span>digerakkan <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span><span style=""> </span>sendi mati<br />2.Amfiartrosis yaitu sendi yang pergerakannya sedikit <span style=""> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Sendi kaku<br />3.Diartrosis yaitu sendi yang pergerakannya bebas<span style=""> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> <span style=""> </span>Sendi gerak</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b>SINARTROSIS</b> adalah hubungan antar tulang yang tidak memiliki celah sendi. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hubungan antar tulang ini dihubungkan dengan erat oleh jaringan ikat yang kemudian menulang sehingga sama sekali tidak bisa digerakkan. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ada dua tipe sinartrosis, yaitu:</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b><span style=""> </span>a.Sutura</b><br />Sutura adalah hubungan antar tulang yang dihubungkan dengan jaringan ikat serabut padat. Contohnya pada tulang tengkorak.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b><span style=""> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b><span style=""> </span>b.Sinkondrosis</b><br /><span style=""> </span>Sinkondrosis adalah hubungan<span style=""> </span>antartulang yang dihubungkan oleh kartilago hialin. Contohnya hubungan antara epifisis dan diafisis pada tulang dewasa. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>AMFIARTROSIS</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>adalah sendi yang dihubungkan oleh kartilago sehingga memungkinkan untuk sedikit digerakkan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Amfiartrosis dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu:</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>a.Simfisis</b><br />Pada simfisis, sendi dihubungkan oleh kartilago serabut yang pipih. Contohnya pada sendi antartulang belakang dan pada tulang kemaluan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>b.Sindesmosis</b><br />Pada sindesmosis, sendi dihubungkan oleh jaringan ikat serabut dan ligamen. Contohnya sendi antartulang betis dan tulang kering. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">DIARTROSIS</b> adalah hubungan antartulang yang kedua ujungnya tidak dihubungkan oleh jaringan sehingga tulang dapat digerakkan.<b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Sendi luncur/Geser</b><br />Pada sendi luncur, kedua ujung tulang agak rata sehingga menimbulkan gerakan menggeser dan tidak berporos. Contohnya sendi antartulang pergelangan tangan, antar tulang pergelangan kaki, antar tulang selangka dan tulang belikat. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Sendi kondiloid/ ellipsoid</b><br />Sendi kondiloid memungkinkan gerakan berporos dua dengan gerakan ke kiri dan ke kanan, ke depan dan ke belakang. Ujung tulang yang satu berbentuk oval dan masuk ke dalam suatu lekuk berbentuk elips. Misalnya sendi antara tulang pengumpil dan tulang pergelangan tangan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>c.<span style=""> </span>Sendi engsel</b><br />Pada sendi engsel, kedua ujung tulang berbentuk engsel dan berporos satu. Gerakannya hanya satu arah seperti gerak engsel pintu. Misalnya gerak sendi pada siku, lutut, mata kaki, dan ruas antarjari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>d. Sendi putar</b><br />Pada sendi ini, ujung tulang yang satu dapat mengitari ujung tulang yang lain. Bentuk seperti ini memungkinkan gerakan rotasi dengan satu poros. Misalnya sendi antara tulang hasta dan pengumpil, dan sendi antara tulang atlas dengan tulang tengkorak.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Sendi peluru</b><br />Pada sendi ini, kedua ujung tulang berbentuk lekuk dan bongkol. Bentuk ini memungkinkan gerakan bebas ke segala arah dan berporos tiga. Misalnya sendi antara tulang gelang bahu dan lengan atas, dan antara tulang gelang panggul dan paha.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>f.<span style=""> </span>Sendi pelana</b><br />Pada sendi pelana, kedua ujung tulang membentuk sendi seperti pelana dan berporos dua, tetapi dapat bergerak lebih bebas . Misalnya sendi antara tulang telapak tangan dengan pergelangan tangan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-3512778254914822382011-06-07T05:48:00.003-07:002011-06-07T05:48:48.605-07:00PENGANTAR ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI MANUSIA<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:officedocumentsettings> <o:relyonvml/> <o:allowpng/> </o:OfficeDocumentSettings> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves/> 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<w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="33" semihidden="false" unhidewhenused="false" qformat="true" name="Book Title"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="37" name="Bibliography"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="39" qformat="true" name="TOC Heading"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style="">PENGANTAR ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI MANUSIA</b></p><b style=""> </b> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Sikap anatomi </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span>suatu keadaan ketika tubuh berdiri tegak menghadap ke depan, tangan dan kaki dirapatkan (seperti dalam keadaan bersiap)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Istilah Umum Anatomi-Fisiologi </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Penyakit dan nama dari alat-alat tubuh dalam bahasa latin </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Penting dan harus diperhatikan karena setiap nama ada artinya.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Harus mengerti maksud dari perkataan itu sehingga dapat dihubungkan dengan alat yang sesuai dengan nama itu.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata benda untuk menyatakan bangunan yang menonjol :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Epikondilus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Benjolan buku tulang yang<span style=""> </span>bukan persendian.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kondilus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Buku tulang (tonjolan bulat di ujung tulang) merupakan bagian dari sendi.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Krista <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Penonjolan berbentuk garis yang lebar (tepi tulang) terdapat di antara dua buah tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Linea <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Penonjolan tulang berbentuk garis yang rata.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pekton <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pinggir atau balung.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Prosesus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span>Taju (penonjolan tulang) yang agak tajam.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tuberkulum <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Penonjolan tulang berbentuk bulat kecil.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tuberositas <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Penonjolan tulang berbentuk bulat besar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata benda yang menyatakan bangun lengkung :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fossa <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lekuk tulang yang luas pada permukaan tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fossula <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lekuk tulang yang kecil pada permukaan tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fovea <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lekuk tulang yang agak rata.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Foveola <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lekuk kecil yang agak rata pada tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Insisura <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Takik berbentuk huruf V.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sulkus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Alur/celah yang memanjang terdapat pada tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata benda yang menyatakan lubang, saluran atau ruangan :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Apertura <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pintu atau bolongan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Duktus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lubang atau buluh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fissura <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Celah atau retak.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Foramen <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lubang bulat tempat pembuluh darah dan saraf.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kanalis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lubang berbentuk saluran.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kavum <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Rongga atau ruangan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Meatus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Liang atau pintu saluran.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sellula <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ruang kecil.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata sifat yang menyatakan arah :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Dorsalis/posterior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> lebih kebelakang/bagian belakang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kaudalis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih dekat/berhubungan dengan ekor.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kranialis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih dekat/berhubungan dengan kepala.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lateralis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih jauh dari garis tengah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Medialis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih dekat pada garis tengah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ventralis/anterior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih ke depan/bagian depan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata sifat yang menyatakan bidang :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Frontal/Koronal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bidang yang tegak lurus pada bidang sagital dan sejajar dengan permukaan perut/permukaan dahi.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Median <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bidang tengah, bidang yang membagi tubuh menjadi dua bagian yang hampir sama.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sagital <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bidang yang sejajar dengan median.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tranversal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bidang melintang tegak lurus pada arah panjang badan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Kata sifat untuk menyatakan arah :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Anterior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah depan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Distal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lebih dekat dengan ujung anggota.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Dorsal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah belakang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Inferior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah bawah tubuh yang berdiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kaudal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah ekor.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kranial <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah kepala.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lateral <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah samping/menjauhi tengah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Longitudinal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Membujur/kearah ukuran panjang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Medial <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah tengah menuju bidang median </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Perifer <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Menuju permukaan tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Plantar <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah telapak kaki.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Posterior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah belakang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Radialis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Sebelah arah tulang pengumpil.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Superior <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah atas tubuh yang berdiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Transversal <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Melintang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ulnarus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Sebelah arah tulang hasta.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ventral <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah depan /abdomen.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Volaris <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ke arah telapak tangan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Menurut daerah dalam tubuh :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Epigastrik <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Daerah ulu hati, bagian tengah atas perut.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hipogastrika <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bagian bawah perut.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hipokondrial dekstra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Daerah samping atas perut sebelah kanan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hipokondrial sinistra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Daerah samping atas perut sebelah kiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ileum dekstra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Daerah tulang usus kanan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ileum sinistra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Daerah tulang usus kiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lumbal dekstra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pinggang kanan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Lumbal sinistra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pinggang kiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Umbilikus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pusar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Arah Pergerakan :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Abduksio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Menjauhkan dari tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Adduksio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Mendekat/menuju tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ekstensio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Meluruskan kembali.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fleksio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Melipat atau membengkokkan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Rotasio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span>Gerakan paksi atau memutar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sirkumdaksio <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Gerakan sirkuler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Istilah penting lain :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Abdomen <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Rongga perut.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ante brakhii <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lengan bawah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Brakhium<span style=""> </span><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lengan atas.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Breve <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Pendek.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Dekstra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bagian kanan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ekstremitas <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Anggota gerak.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Eksternus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bagian luar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Falangus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Jari-jari/ruas jari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Femoris <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Tungkai atas.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Internus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> bagian dalam.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kaput <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Kepala.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kauda <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ekor.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kolum <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Leher.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Korpus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Badan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kruris <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Tungkai Bawah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Longus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Panjang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Magna <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Besar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mantis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Tangan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Minima <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Kecil.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Oblikus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Miring.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pedis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Kaki.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pelvis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Rongga panggul.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Planta pedis <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Telapak kaki.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Profunda <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Sebelah kanan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Rekta <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Lurus.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Sinistra <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Bagian kiri.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Superfisial <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Sebelah luar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Torak <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Rongga dada.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Trunkus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Batang badan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Volarmanus <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Telapak tangan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Ilmu yang mempelajari bagian </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Tubuh tertentu :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Artrologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang sendi (penyakit sendi)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Dermatologi</b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang kulit (penyakit kulit)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Gastrologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang saluran pencernaan, terutama lambung dan usus (penyakit usus dan lambung)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Kardiologi</b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang jantung (penyakit jantung)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Miologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang otot.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Neurologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang persarafan (penyakit saraf)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Oftalmologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang mata (penyakit mata)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Osteologi </b><b><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span></b> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang tulang (penyakit tulang)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Urologi</b> <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang saluran kemih, dan sistem reproduksi (penyakit saluran kencing).<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b><u>Cairan Tubuh </u></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Air beserta unsur-unsur di dalamnya yang diperlukan untuk kesehatan sel disebut cairan tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan ini sebagian berada di luar sel (ekstraselular) dan sebagian lagi di dalam sel (intraselular)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">Cairan tubuh terdiri dari :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>Cairan intraselular</i> (dalam sel), 50% dari berat badanletaknya di dalam sel dan mengandung elektrolit, kalium fosfat dan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>bahan makanan seperti glukosa dan asam amino. Kerja enzim dalam sel sifatnya konstan, memecahkan dan membangun kembali sebagaimana dalam semua metabolisme untuk mempertahankan keseimbangan cairan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>Cairan ektsraselular atau interstisial (diluar sel), </i>membentuk 30% cairan dalm tubuh (kurang lebih 12 liter). Air ini merupakan medium di tengah sel hidup. Sel menerima garam, makanan, oksigen, dan melepaskan semua hasil buangannya ke dalam cairan itu juga.<i> </i></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><i>Plasma darah, </i>5% dari berat tubuh (3 liter), merupakan sistem transpor yang melayani semua sel melalui medium cairan ekstraselular.<i> </i></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Pertukaran cairan dalam jaringan :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan dalam plasma berada di bawah tekanan hidrostatik lebih besar daripada tekanan interstisial, oleh karena itu cairan cenderung keluar dari pembuluh kapiler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Di dalam plasma ada protein, sedangkan cairan interstisial mengandung sedikit protein, protein plasma ini mengeluarkan tekanan osmotik yang berusaha mengisap cairan masuk pembuluh kapiler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pada Ujung kapiler arteri, tekanan hidrostatik lebih besar dari tekanan osmotik, yang imbangan kekuatan mendorong cairan masuk jaringan, sedangkan pada ujung </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>kapiler vena tekanan hodrostatik kurang, tekanan osmotik mengatasinya dan menarik kembali cairan masuk kapiler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Secara normal cairan yang meninggalkan kapiler lebih banyak daripada cairan yang kembali masuk ke dalamnya, kelebihna ini disalurkan melalui limfe (getah bening).</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pertukaran antara cairan intraselular dan ekstraselular juga bergantung pada tekanan osmotik, akan tetapi membran sel mempunyai permeabilitas selektif dan dilalui oleh beberapa bahan seperti oksigen, karbon dioksida dan ureum secara bebas.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mekanisme ini memompakan bahan lain masuk atau ke luar untuk mempertahankan konsentrasi dalam cairan intraselular dan ekstraselular, misalnya, kalium dikonsentrasikan dalam cairan intraselular sedangkan natrium dipompakan ke luar.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Fisiologi cairan tubuh dan darah :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pencegahan kehilangan darah, apabila pembuluh darah terputus atau pecah, dilakukan oleh berbagai mekanisme yaitu cairan tubuh dan darah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Dalam pengaturan yang mempertahankan kekonstanan cairan tubuh diperlukan adanya pengaturan voluma cairan tubuh, cairan ekstraseluler, keseimbangan asam dan basa, kontrol pertukaran antara kompartemen cairan ekstraseluler dan intraseluler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Keseimbangan cairan</b>, dalam tubuh yang sehat, 60% dari berat badan adalah air yang terdiri dari dua komponen : ⅔ bagian cairan intraseluler (65% dari cairan tubuh) dan ⅓ bagian cairan ekstraseluler (35% dari cairan tubuh).</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Keseimbangan cairan tubuh :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Air masuk ke dalam tubuh :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style=""> </span></b>1. Air minum<b><span style=""> </span></b><span style=""> </span>1500-2000 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>2. Air yang ada dalam makan<span style=""> </span>700 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>3. Air yang dihasilkan tubuh sendiri<span style=""> </span>200 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>- Jumlah<span style=""> </span>2400-2900 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Air tubuh yang keluar :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>1. Ekskresi ginjal<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>1400-1900 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>2. Ekspirasi pernapasan<span style=""> </span>350 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>3. Keringat<span style=""> </span>100 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>4. Dengan cara difusi<span style=""> </span>350 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>5. Air dalam feses<span style=""> </span>200 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>- Jumlah<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>2400-2900 ml/hari.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Homeostasis :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pengaturan fisiologis digunakan untuk mengembalikan keadaan normal apabila terganggu.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pengaturan sifat pendaparan dilakukan oleh ginjal dan pernapasan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan<b> </b>tubuh merupakan objek homeostatis karena cairan tubuh diatur keseimbangan bermacam-macam elektrolit.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Homeostasis juga mengatur keseimbangan asam dan basa.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan tubuh diatur agar suhunya selalu konstan 37º C dengan cara mekanisme produksi dan pelepasan panas.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">Distribusi cairan tubuh :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan intrasel, cairan yang berada di dalam sel di bawah suatu bentuj pengendalian karena membran sel bersifat permeabel dan cairan dalam sel harus mempunyai mekanisme tertentu untuk mencegah masuknya air yang tidak terkendali dan mengeluarkan cairan secara terkendali. Volume air dalam sel tidak dapat di ukur.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan ekstrasel, cairan yang berada di luar sel atau di antara sel (dalam jaringan), terdiri dari volume CES yang sukar diukur karena batas ruang yang sukar ditetapkan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;">CES terdiri dari :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan interstisial, cairan yang berada di antara sel jaringan.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan intravaskuler (plasma), cairan yang berada dalam pembuluh darah yang membawa oksigen ke dalam jaringan dan mengeluarkan karbon dioksida.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan limfe, cairan yang berada dalam pembuluh limfe yang mengangkut partikel protein ke dalam pembuluh darah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Cairan transeluler, cairan yang berada di tempat khusus, misalnya cairan otak, cairan sendi, cairan bola mata, dll.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Satuan pengukuran zat terlarut :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Konsentrasi zat terlarut tertentu dapat dinyatakan dalam miligram/desiliter (mg/dl), milimol/liter atau mM/:miliequivalen/liter (mEq/l) atau miliosmol/ki: 10 g atau liter (mOsmol/kg atau mOsmol/L)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>mEq = <u>Berat molekul (atom) dalam mg</u></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>Valensi </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">l<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>mOsmol =<span style=""> </span><u>Berat molekul atom dalam mg</u></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><span style=""> </span>n (partikel yang menghasilkan tekanan osmotik </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Fungsi elektrolit :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Membantu perpindahan cairan antara ruangan di dalam sel dan di luar sel.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mengatur keseimbangan asam-basa dan menentukan pH darah dengan adanya sistem buler.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Perbedaan komposisi elektrolit di CES dan CIS menimbulkan perpindahan yang menghasilkan impuls-impuls saraf dan mengakibatkan kontraksi otot.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b>Prinsip dasar osmosis dan tekanan osmotik </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Cairan isotonik</b>, Jika suatu sel dimasukan pada suatu larutan dengan zat terlarut impermeabel (tidak dapat dilewati), sel tidak mengerut atau membengkak karena keseimbangan antara cairan intrasel dan ekstrasel.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Cairan hipotonik</b>, sebuah sel dimasukan dalam larutan yang mempunyai konsentrasi zat terlarut impermeabel lebih rendah maka air akan berdifusi ke dalam sel, sel akan membengkak mengencerkan cairan intraseluler sampai kedua larutan mempunyai osmolitas yang sama.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"><b style="">3.<span style=""> </span>Cairan hipertonik, </b>sel dalam larutan konsentrasi zat terlarut impermeabel lebih tinggi maka air akan mengalir keluar dari sel dan masuk ke dalam cairan ekstrasel dan sel akan mengerut.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="text-align: justify;"> </p> <p 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Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">SISTEM URINARIA</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><b style=""><span style=""> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Sistem Urinaria adalah suatu sistem dimana terjadinya proses penyaringan darah sehingga darah bebas dari zat – zat yang tidak dipergunakan oleh tubuh dan menyerap zat – zat yang masih dipergunakan oleh tubuh </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Terdiri dari:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Ginjal </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Ureter </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Vesika Urinaria </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Uretra </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" width="316" height="291" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Fungsi Ginjal terdiri dari :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal memegang peranan penting dalam pengeluaran zat-zat toksis. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mengeluarkan sisa-sisa metabolisme hasil akhir dari protein seperti: ureum,kreatin dan amoniak. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan suasana keseimbangan cairan. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan keseimbangan garam-garam dan zat-zat lain dalam tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan keseimbangan kadar asam dan basa dari cairan tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Menghasilkan hormone Eritropoetin yang beredar dalam tubuh untuk mengatur produksi Sel Darah Merah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pengatur tekanan darah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Letak dan tampilan:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Terletak di bagian belakang kavum abdominalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>di belakang peritonium </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>pada kedua sisi vertebra lumbalis III, </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Berbentuk seperti biji kacang, </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>jumlahnya ada 2 buah kiri dan kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>ginjal kiri lebih besar dari ginjal kanan, dan pada umumnya ginjal laki – laki lebih panjang dari ginjal wanita.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" alt="http://vgcorner.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/010209-2041-solusigagal1.jpg" width="353" height="412" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Struktur Ginjal</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal terbungkus oleh kapsula renalis yang terdiri dari jaringan fibrous berwarna ungu tua </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>lapisan luar terdapat lapisan korteks </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>lapisan sebelah dalam bagian medula, berbentuk kerucut yang disebut renal piramid, yang terdiri dari lubang-lubang kecil disebut papila renalis. berjumlah 15-16 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Garis-garis yang terlihat pada piramid disebut tubulus nefron </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tubulus nefron merupakan bagian terkecil dari ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="273" height="363" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>NEFRON</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Tubulus nefron terdiri dari :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Glomerulus </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus proksimal (tubulus kontorti satu)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">ansa henle </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus distal (tubulus kontorti dua)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus urinarius (papila vateri)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Setiap ginjal diperkirakan memiliki sekitar 1 juta nefron </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Selama 24 jam dapat menyaring darah sekitar 170 liter</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" width="431" height="454" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>PEREDARAN DARAH GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal mendapat darah dari Aorta abdominalis<span style=""> </span>yang mempunyai percabangan arteria renalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A.renalis berpasangan kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A.renalis<span style=""> </span>bercabang menjadi <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> a. interlobaris <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> a.arkuata </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A. interlobularis yang berada di tepi ginjal bercabang menjadi kapiler membentuk gumpalan <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> glomerulus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kapiler Peritubular<span style=""> </span>Yang mengelilingi Tubulus Proksimal dan Distal untuk memberi Nutrien pada Tubulus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kapiler Peritubuler mengalir kedalam Vena Korteks yang kemudian membentuk Vena Interlobaris. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" alt="kidney-anatomy2" width="338" height="296" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Persarafan</b><span style=""></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal mendapat persarafan dari Pleksus renalis (vasomotor)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Saraf ini berfungsi mengatur jumlah darah yang masuk kedalam ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Saraf ini berjalan bersamaan dengan pembuluh darah yang masuk ke ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Di atas ginjal terdapat kelenjar suprarenalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kelenjar suprarenal merupakan kelenjar buntu yang menghasilkan 2 macam hormon, yaitu hormon adrenalin dan hormon kortison</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.jpg" alt="http://vgcorner.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/010209-2041-solusigagal1.jpg" width="260" height="297" /></span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.jpg" alt="kidney_stone_3" width="478" height="451" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">X-Ray Ginjal dengan kontras </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.jpg" alt="x-ray" width="454" height="520" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.jpg" alt="staghorn_xray" width="430" height="507" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>FISIOLOGI GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Mengatur volume air (cairan) dalam tubuh </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kelebihan air dalam tubuh akan diekskresikan oleh ginjal sebagai urine (kemih) yang encer dalam jumlah besar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kekurangan air (kelebihan keringat) menyebabkan urine yang diekskresi berkurang dan konsentrasinya lebih pekat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Akibatnya susunan dan volume cairan tubuh dapat dipertahankan relatif normal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">2<b style="">. Mengatur keseimbangan asam basa</b> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>keseimbangan asam basa cairan tubuh </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>tergantung dari apa yang dimakan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>hasil akhir dari metabolisme protein<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>menghasilkan urine bersifat agak asam<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>(pH < 6)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Sayur-sayuran <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> urine bersifat basa </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>pH urine bervariasi antara 4,8-8,2</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal mengekskresi urine sesuai dengan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>perubahan pH darah<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style="">3. Ekskresi sisa hasil metabolisme</b> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- ureum </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- asam urat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- kreatinin </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- zat-zat toksik </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- obat-obatan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- hasil metabolisme hemoglobin</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- bahan kimia asing (pestisida)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style="">4. Fungsi hormonal dan metabolisme </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal mengekskresi hormon renin yang mempunyai peranan penting mengatur tekanan darah (sistem renin angiotensin aldosteron) <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Menghasilkan hormon eritropoietin<span style=""> </span>membentuk eritropoesis yang mempunyai peranan penting untuk memproses pembentukan sel-sel darah merah (eritropoesis)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal juga membentuk hormon dihidroksi kolekalsiferol (vitamin D aktif) yang diperlukan untuk absorbsi ion kalsium di usus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.jpg" alt="Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Filtration_in_the_glomerulus_capsule" width="489" height="315" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b>Filtrasi Glomerulus</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Sifat kapiler Glomerulus :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>bersifat relatif impermiabel terhadap protein plasma yang lebih besar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif";"><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>permeabel terhadap air dan larutan yang lebih kecil seperti elektrolit, asam amino, glukosa dan sisa nitrogen</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Tiga (3) faktor dalam proses filtrasi</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><b style=""><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="">Tekanan Osmotik (TO)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span>- Tekanan yang dikeluarkan oleh air (sebagai pelarut) pada membran semi <span style=""> </span>permiabel sebagai usaha untuk menembus<span style=""> </span>membran semi permiabel ke dalam area <span style=""> </span>yang mengandung lebih banyak molekul<span style=""> </span>yang dapat melewati membran semi permeabel.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Pori-pori dalam kapiler glomerulus membuat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>membran semi permeabel memungkinkan dilewati<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>molekul yang lebih kecil dan air tetapi mencegah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>molekul yang lebih besar misalnya protein & plasma</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;">2. <b style="">Tekanan Hidrostatik (TH)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Sekitar 15mmHg dihasilkan oleh adanya filtrasi dalam kapsula dan berlawanan dengan tekanan hidrostatik darah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Filtrasi juga mengeluarkan tekanan osmotik<span style=""> </span>1-3mmHg yang berlawanan dengan osmotik darah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b style="">3. Perbedaan tekanan osmotik plasma</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Perbedaan tekanan osmotik plasma dengan cairan dalam kapsula Bowman menunjukkan perbedaan konsentrasi protein, perbedaan ini menimbulkan pori-pori kapiler mencegah protein plasma untuk difiltrasi </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tekanan Hidrostatik plasma dan tekanan osmotik filtrat kapsula Bowman bekerjasama untuk meningkatkan gerakan air dan molekul permeabel, molekul permeabel kecil dari plasma masuk ke dalam kapsula Bowman<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tekanan hidrostatik dan tekanan osmotik filtrat dalam kapsula Bowman bersama-sama mempercepat gerakan air dan molekul permeabel dari kapsula Bowman masuk ke kapiler akan mempermudah pemindahan filtrat dari aliran darah ke kapsula Bowman</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Laju ini disebut <span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Laju Filtrasi Glomerulus (LFG)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pada orang sehat jumlah pertukaran filtrasi per menit 125 ml</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Faktor klinis yang mempengaruhi LFG :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- TH dan TO</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 3";"><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hipoproteinemia yang terjadi pada kasus kelaparan akan :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- menurunkan TO</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- meningkatkan LFG<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-46277300299775300532011-06-07T05:40:00.001-07:002011-06-07T05:43:18.270-07:00<a 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unhidewhenused="false" qformat="true" name="Intense Emphasis"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="31" semihidden="false" unhidewhenused="false" qformat="true" name="Subtle Reference"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="32" semihidden="false" unhidewhenused="false" qformat="true" name="Intense Reference"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="33" semihidden="false" unhidewhenused="false" qformat="true" name="Book Title"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="37" name="Bibliography"> <w:lsdexception locked="false" priority="39" qformat="true" name="TOC Heading"> </w:lsdexception> </w:lsdexception><!--[endif]--><!--> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0cm; mso-para-margin-right:0cm; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <!--[endif]--> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">SISTEM URINARIA</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span>By: Dr. Yuliza Birman </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Sistem Urinaria adalah suatu sistem dimana terjadinya proses penyaringan darah sehingga darah bebas dari zat – zat yang tidak dipergunakan oleh tubuh dan menyerap zat – zat yang masih dipergunakan oleh tubuh </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Terdiri dari:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Ginjal </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Ureter </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Vesika Urinaria </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Uretra </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" width="316" height="291" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Fungsi Ginjal terdiri dari :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal memegang peranan penting dalam pengeluaran zat-zat toksis. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mengeluarkan sisa-sisa metabolisme hasil akhir dari protein seperti: ureum,kreatin dan amoniak. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan suasana keseimbangan cairan. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan keseimbangan garam-garam dan zat-zat lain dalam tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mempertahankan keseimbangan kadar asam dan basa dari cairan tubuh.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Menghasilkan hormone Eritropoetin yang beredar dalam tubuh untuk mengatur produksi Sel Darah Merah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pengatur tekanan darah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Letak dan tampilan:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Terletak di bagian belakang kavum abdominalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>di belakang peritonium </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>pada kedua sisi vertebra lumbalis III, </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Berbentuk seperti biji kacang, </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>jumlahnya ada 2 buah kiri dan kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>ginjal kiri lebih besar dari ginjal kanan, dan pada umumnya ginjal laki – laki lebih panjang dari ginjal wanita.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" alt="http://vgcorner.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/010209-2041-solusigagal1.jpg" width="353" height="412" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Struktur Ginjal</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal terbungkus oleh kapsula renalis yang terdiri dari jaringan fibrous berwarna ungu tua </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>lapisan luar terdapat lapisan korteks </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>lapisan sebelah dalam bagian medula, berbentuk kerucut yang disebut renal piramid, yang terdiri dari lubang-lubang kecil disebut papila renalis. berjumlah 15-16 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Garis-garis yang terlihat pada piramid disebut tubulus nefron </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tubulus nefron merupakan bagian terkecil dari ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="273" height="363" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>NEFRON</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Tubulus nefron terdiri dari :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Glomerulus </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus proksimal (tubulus kontorti satu)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">ansa henle </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus distal (tubulus kontorti dua)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">tubulus urinarius (papila vateri)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Setiap ginjal diperkirakan memiliki sekitar 1 juta nefron </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Selama 24 jam dapat menyaring darah sekitar 170 liter</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" width="431" height="454" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>PEREDARAN DARAH GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal mendapat darah dari Aorta abdominalis<span style=""> </span>yang mempunyai percabangan arteria renalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A.renalis berpasangan kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A.renalis<span style=""> </span>bercabang menjadi <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> a. interlobaris <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> a.arkuata </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>A. interlobularis yang berada di tepi ginjal bercabang menjadi kapiler membentuk gumpalan <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> glomerulus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kapiler Peritubular<span style=""> </span>Yang mengelilingi Tubulus Proksimal dan Distal untuk memberi Nutrien pada Tubulus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kapiler Peritubuler mengalir kedalam Vena Korteks yang kemudian membentuk Vena Interlobaris. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.jpg" alt="kidney-anatomy2" width="338" height="296" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Persarafan</b><span style=""></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ginjal mendapat persarafan dari Pleksus renalis (vasomotor)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Saraf ini berfungsi mengatur jumlah darah yang masuk kedalam ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Saraf ini berjalan bersamaan dengan pembuluh darah yang masuk ke ginjal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Di atas ginjal terdapat kelenjar suprarenalis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kelenjar suprarenal merupakan kelenjar buntu yang menghasilkan 2 macam hormon, yaitu hormon adrenalin dan hormon kortison</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image011.jpg" alt="http://vgcorner.files.wordpress.com/2009/01/010209-2041-solusigagal1.jpg" width="260" height="297" /></span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image013.jpg" alt="kidney_stone_3" width="478" height="451" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">X-Ray Ginjal dengan kontras </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.jpg" alt="x-ray" width="454" height="520" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.jpg" alt="staghorn_xray" width="430" height="507" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>FISIOLOGI GINJAL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Mengatur volume air (cairan) dalam tubuh </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kelebihan air dalam tubuh akan diekskresikan oleh ginjal sebagai urine (kemih) yang encer dalam jumlah besar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kekurangan air (kelebihan keringat) menyebabkan urine yang diekskresi berkurang dan konsentrasinya lebih pekat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Akibatnya susunan dan volume cairan tubuh dapat dipertahankan relatif normal </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">2<b style="">. Mengatur keseimbangan asam basa</b> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>keseimbangan asam basa cairan tubuh </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>tergantung dari apa yang dimakan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>hasil akhir dari metabolisme protein<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>menghasilkan urine bersifat agak asam<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>(pH < 6)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Sayur-sayuran <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> urine bersifat basa </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>pH urine bervariasi antara 4,8-8,2</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal mengekskresi urine sesuai dengan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>perubahan pH darah<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style="">3. Ekskresi sisa hasil metabolisme</b> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- ureum </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- asam urat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- kreatinin </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- zat-zat toksik </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- obat-obatan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- hasil metabolisme hemoglobin</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span>- bahan kimia asing (pestisida)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style="">4. Fungsi hormonal dan metabolisme </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal mengekskresi hormon renin yang mempunyai peranan penting mengatur tekanan darah (sistem renin angiotensin aldosteron) <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Menghasilkan hormon eritropoietin<span style=""> </span>membentuk eritropoesis yang mempunyai peranan penting untuk memproses pembentukan sel-sel darah merah (eritropoesis)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style=""> </span>Ginjal juga membentuk hormon dihidroksi kolekalsiferol (vitamin D aktif) yang diperlukan untuk absorbsi ion kalsium di usus </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.jpg" alt="Anatomy_and_physiology_of_animals_Filtration_in_the_glomerulus_capsule" width="489" height="315" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b>Filtrasi Glomerulus</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Sifat kapiler Glomerulus :</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>bersifat relatif impermiabel terhadap protein plasma yang lebih besar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">◦<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>permeabel terhadap air dan larutan yang lebih kecil seperti elektrolit, asam amino, glukosa dan sisa nitrogen</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Tiga (3) faktor dalam proses filtrasi</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><b style=""><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="">Tekanan Osmotik (TO)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span>- Tekanan yang dikeluarkan oleh air (sebagai pelarut) pada membran semi <span style=""> </span>permiabel sebagai usaha untuk menembus<span style=""> </span>membran semi permiabel ke dalam area <span style=""> </span>yang mengandung lebih banyak molekul<span style=""> </span>yang dapat melewati membran semi permeabel.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Pori-pori dalam kapiler glomerulus membuat </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>membran semi permeabel memungkinkan dilewati<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>molekul yang lebih kecil dan air tetapi mencegah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>molekul yang lebih besar misalnya protein & plasma</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;">2. <b style="">Tekanan Hidrostatik (TH)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Sekitar 15mmHg dihasilkan oleh adanya filtrasi dalam kapsula dan berlawanan dengan tekanan hidrostatik darah.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Filtrasi juga mengeluarkan tekanan osmotik<span style=""> </span>1-3mmHg yang berlawanan dengan osmotik darah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><b style="">3. Perbedaan tekanan osmotik plasma</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- Perbedaan tekanan osmotik plasma dengan cairan dalam kapsula Bowman menunjukkan perbedaan konsentrasi protein, perbedaan ini menimbulkan pori-pori kapiler mencegah protein plasma untuk difiltrasi </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tekanan Hidrostatik plasma dan tekanan osmotik filtrat kapsula Bowman bekerjasama untuk meningkatkan gerakan air dan molekul permeabel, molekul permeabel kecil dari plasma masuk ke dalam kapsula Bowman<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tekanan hidrostatik dan tekanan osmotik filtrat dalam kapsula Bowman bersama-sama mempercepat gerakan air dan molekul permeabel dari kapsula Bowman masuk ke kapiler akan mempermudah pemindahan filtrat dari aliran darah ke kapsula Bowman</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Laju ini disebut <span style="font-family:Wingdings;"><span style="">à</span></span> Laju Filtrasi Glomerulus (LFG)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Pada orang sehat jumlah pertukaran filtrasi per menit 125 ml</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Faktor klinis yang mempengaruhi LFG :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- TH dan TO</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=";font-family:";" ><span style="">}<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Hipoproteinemia yang terjadi pada kasus kelaparan akan :</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- menurunkan TO</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"><span style=""> </span>- meningkatkan LFG<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 18pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-58792008898224556212011-06-07T05:39:00.000-07:002011-06-07T05:40:45.776-07:00SISTEM RANGKA<!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* 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mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapedefaults ext="edit" spidmax="1031"> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <o:shapelayout ext="edit"> <o:idmap ext="edit" data="1"> </o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style="color: rgb(255, 0, 0);">SISTEM RANGKA</span><br /><span style=""> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span>FUNGSI RANGKA</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>menahan seluruh bagian-bagian tubuh agar tidak rubuh </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>melindungi alat tubuh yang halus seperti otak, jantung, dan paru-paru </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>tempat melekatnya otot-otot </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>untuk pergerakan tubuh dengan perantaraan otot </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>tempat pembuatan sel-sel darah terutama sel darah merah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>memberikan bentuk pada bangunan tubuh<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Susunan kerangka terdiri dari bermacam tulang, tdr:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Tengkorak 8 buah<span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Wajah 14 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Telinga dalam 6 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>lidah 1 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Dada 25 buah<span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Tlg blkg & gelang pinggul 26 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Anggota gerak atas 64 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>-<span style=""> </span>Anggota gerak bawah 62 buah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">Total: 206 buah</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Bagian yang sering terdapat pd tulang:</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Foramen : Lubang tempat lewat pemb drh, saraf, ligamen </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Fosa : Lekukan didlm/permukaan tulang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">3.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Prosesus : tonjolan/taju </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kondilus : benjolan/taju bundar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">5.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tuberkulum : Tonjolan kecil </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">6.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tuberositas : Tonjolan besar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">7.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Trokanter : tonjolan besar pd tlg paha </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">8.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Krista : pinggir tulang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">9.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Spina : tonjolan runcing </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">10.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Kaput : kepala tulang berbentuk bundar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" alt="hal11.jpg" width="307" height="248" /></span><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" alt="gelang panggul2.jpg" align="left" width="251" height="223" hspace="12" /><br /> <b style="">PEMBAGIAN RANGKA TUBUH MANUSIA</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Rangka tubuh manusia dikelompokkan atas dua bagian yaitu:<br /><b>A. Skeleton aksial </b><br />Terdiri atas sekelompok tulang yang menyusun poros tubuh dan memberikan dukungan dan perlindungan pada organ di kepala, leher dan badan<br />Skeleton aksial terdiri dari: </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tulang Tengkorak </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tulang dada</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tukang rusuk </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Ruas2 tulang belakang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>B. Skeleton apendikular</b><br />Tersusun atas tulang tulang yang merupakan tambahan dari skeleton axial. Ske terdiri dari : </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Anggota gerak atas </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Anggota gerak bawah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Gelang panggul </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Bagian akhir dari ruas tulang belakang, seperti sakrum dan coccygis </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image005.jpg" alt="rangka 1.jpg" width="320" height="191" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>TULANG KEPALA/TENGKORAK/CRANIUM</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Dibentuk oleh tulang pipih melengkung<span style=""> </span>yg berhubungan erat sekali,dihubungkan o/ sutura </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Terdiri atas tulang tengkorak dan wajah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image007.jpg" alt="cranialbones.jpg" width="431" height="310" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>TENGKORAK OTAK</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" alt="cranialbones.jpg" width="333" height="299" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Kubah tengkorak </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os. Frontal : Tulang dahi, dpn kepala </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os.Parietal : Tulang ubun2, tengah kepala </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os. Occipital : Belakang kepala<span style=""> </span>For. Magnum<span style=""> </span>Tlg blkg </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>2</b>. <b>Dasar Tengkorak </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os. Sfenoidal : di tengah dasar tengkorak spt kupu2 dg 3 pasang sayap </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Etmoideal:didepan<span style=""> </span>os sfenoidal, menyusun rongga hidung </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>3. Samping Tengkorak </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tlg karang/skuamosa:membentuk rongga telinga tengah dan dalam </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Tlg keras/os.petrosum:menjorok ke bagian tlg pipi </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Mastoid</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>TENGKORAK WAJAH</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" alt="cranialbones.jpg" width="333" height="299" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>HIDUNG</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Lakrimal: mata, dikiri kanan pangkal hidung </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os. Nasal: hidung atas </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os. Konka nasal: rongga hidung </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Septum nasi: sekat rongga hidung </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>RAHANG</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Maxilaris : rahang atas, 2 buah, kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Prosesus Alveolaris: tempat melekat urat gigi </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Zygomatikum: pipi, 2 buah, kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">d.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Palatum: langit2, 2 buah, kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">e.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os.Mandibularis: rahang bawah, 2 buah, kiri kanan </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style=""><span style="">f.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Os Hioid: lidah </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span>Terdapat 3 rongga(cavum): orbita (mata), Nasi (hidung), oris (mulut)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>TULANG BELAKANG (VERTEBRE)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image010.gif" alt="Tulang_belakang.png" width="296" height="335" /></span><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image012.jpg" alt="vet torak.png" align="left" width="296" height="269" hspace="12" /><br /> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b>Vertebra cervikals (7 ruas)</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Ruas pertama: atlas</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Ruas kedua: aksis<span style=""> </span>( goyang kepala) </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Ruas ketujuh: vert prominans </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Vertebra torakalis (12 ruas)</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Badan ruas </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Lengkung ruas: pros. Spinosus dan transvesus </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Vertebra lumbalis (5 ruas)</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Ruas kelima:promontorium </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Vertebra sakralis (5 ruas)</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Lubang kecil: foramen sakralis</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><span style=""><span style=""> </span></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Vertebra koksigalis (4 ruas)</span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Menjadi satu buah tulang </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="">Persendian dg tlg sakrum </span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">KERANGKA DADA</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image014.jpg" alt="rongga dada.jpg" align="left" width="259" height="245" hspace="12" />-Os. Sternum (tulang dada)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Manubrium sterni </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Korpus sterni </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Prosesus xifoid </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Os. Costa (tulang iga)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Kosta vera (tulang iga sejati)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 288pt;"><span style=""> </span>ada 7 pasang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Kosta spuria (tlg iga palsu)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 288pt;"><span style=""> </span>ada 3 pasang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 324pt;">-Kosta Fluitante (iga melayang)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 288pt;"><span style=""> </span>ada 2 pasang </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><br /> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">KERANGKA PANGGUL</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image015.jpg" alt="gelang panggul2.jpg" align="left" width="206" height="197" hspace="12" />-Os. Ileum (tlg usus)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Fosa iliaka </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Spina iliaka </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Krista iliaka </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Os. Pubis (tlg -emaluan)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Simfisis pubis</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Tuberkel pubis</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Os. Iskhi (tlg duduk)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Tuberositas iskhiadikum </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Foramen obturatorium </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing">-Asetabulum </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">GELANG BAHU</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image017.jpg" alt="gelang bahu.jpg" width="233" height="239" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style=""><span style="color: red;">Tulang gelang</span> bahu disebut juga tulang pectoral bahu tersusun atas 4 buah tulang yaitu 2 tulang belikat (skapula) dan 2 tulang selangka ( klavikula).</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; color: red;"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style=""><span style="color: red;">Tulang selangka </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">berbentuk seperti huruf "S“</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">berhubungan dengan tulang lengan atas (humerus) </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span>untuk membentuk persendian yang menghasilkan </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span>gerakan<span style=""> </span>lebih bebas </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">ujung yang satu berhubungan dengan tulang dada</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">ujung lainnya berhubungan dengan tulang belikat.</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt;"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2"; color: red;"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style=""><span style="color: red;">Tulang belikat (skapula) </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">bentuk segitiga dan pipih </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">terletak pada bagian belakang dari tulang rusuk </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">ü<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b style="">Fungsi utama dari gelang bahu adalah tempat melekatnya </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span>sejumlah otot yang memungkinkan terjadinya gerakan pada sendi </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">EXTREMITAS SUPERIOR/<br />ANGGOTA GERAK ATAS</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image019.jpg" alt="ekstremitas 2.jpg" width="275" height="285" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Humerus / tulang lengan atas</b>. Termasuk kelompok tulang panjang /pipa, ujung atasnya besar, halus, dan dikelilingi oleh tulang belikat. pada bagian bawah memiliki dua lekukan merupakan tempat melekatnya tulang radius dan ulna </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Radius dan ulna / pengumpil dan hasta</b><b style="">. </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""> </span>Tulang ulna berukuran lebih besar dibandingkan radius, dan melekat dengan kuat di humerus. Tulang radius memiliki kontribusi yang besar untuk gerakan lengan bawah dibandingkan ulna </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image021.jpg" alt="hal08.jpg" align="left" width="267" height="460" hspace="12" /></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;"><b>*karpal / pergelangan tangan/wirst joint</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;">tersusun atas 8 buah tulang yang saling dihubungkan oleh ligamen </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;"><b>*metakarpal / telapak tangan</b><b style="">.</b> Tersusun atas lima buah tangan. Pada bagian atas berhubungan dengan tulang pergelangan tangan, sedangkan bagian bawah berhubungan dengan tulang-tulang jari (palanges) </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;"><b> </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 270pt;"><b>*Palanges (tulang jari-jari)</b><b style="">.</b> tersusun atas 14 buah tulang. Setiap jari tersusun atas tiga buah tulang, kecuali ibu jari yang hanya tersusun atas 2 buah tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 234pt;"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style="">EXTREMITAS INFERIOR/<br />ANGGOTA GERAK BAWAH</b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image023.jpg" alt="ekstremitas inferior.jpg" width="220" height="329" /></span></b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Femur / tulang paha</b><b style="">. </b></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><b style=""><span style=""> </span></b><span style=""> </span>Termasuk kelompok tulang panjang, terletak mulai dari gelang panggul sampai ke lutut. </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Tibia dan fibula / tulang kering dan tulang betis.</b><b style=""> </b>Bagian pangkal berhubungan dengan lutut bagian ujung berhubungan dengan pergelangan kaki. Ukuran tulang kering lebih besar dinandingkan tulang betis karena berfungsi untuk menahan beban atau berat tubuh. Tulang betis merupakan tempat melekatnya beberapa otot </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Patela / tempurung lutut</b><b style="">. </b>terletak antara femur dengan tibia, bentuk segitiga. patela berfungsi melindungi sendi lutut, dan memberikan kekuatan pada tendon yang membentuk lutut </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image025.jpg" alt="syndesmosis.jpg" width="300" height="355" /></span></p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Tarsal / Tulang pergelangan kaki</b>. Termasuk tulang pendek, dan tersusun atas 8 tulang dengan salah satunya adalah tulang tumit (Calcaneus)</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Metatarsal / Tulang telapak kaki</b>. Tersusun atas 5 buah tulang yang<span style=""> </span>mendatar </p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing" style="margin-left: 36pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "Wingdings 2";"><span style="">Ò<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b>Palanges / tulang jari-jari kaki.</b> Tersusun tiap jari terdiri atas 3 tulang kecuali tulang ibu jari atas 2 tulang.</p> <p class="MsoNoSpacing"> </p> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-25958653895485521542011-06-07T05:36:00.000-07:002011-06-07T05:39:06.825-07:00lower ekstremity<!--[if !mso]> <style> v\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} o\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} w\:* {behavior:url(#default#VML);} .shape {behavior:url(#default#VML);} </style> <![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> 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style="text-align: center;" align="center"><b style=""><span style="font-size: 20pt; line-height: 115%;">LOWER EXTREMITAS</span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image002.jpg" width="498" height="484" /><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image004.jpg" width="452" height="583" /></span></p> <span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";"><br /> </span> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="474" height="490" /><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.jpg" width="476" height="680" /></span></p> <span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif";"><br /> </span> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> 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mso-para-margin-left:0cm; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><a href="http://catatanradiograf.blogspot.com/2010/03/teknik-radiografi-intra-venous.html"><span style="color: blue;">Teknik Radiografi Intra Venous Pyelography (IVP)</span></a> </span></b></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">1. Definisi</span></b><span style=""></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Ilmu yang mempelajari prosedur /tata cara pemeriksaan ginjal, ureter, dan blass (vesica urinary) menggunakan sinar-x dengan melakukan injeksi media kontras melalui vena. </span></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pada saat media kontras diinjeksikan melalui pembuluh vena pada tangan pasien, media kontras akan mengikuti peredaran darah dan dikumpulkan dalam ginjal dan tractus urinary, sehingga ginjal dan tractus urinary menjadi berwarna putih.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Dengan IVP, radiologist dapat melihat dan mengetahui anatomy serta fungsi ginjal, ureter dan blass.</span></li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">2. </span></b><span style=""> <b>Tujuan Pemeriksaan IVP</b></span></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pemeriksaan IVP membantu dokter mengetahui adanya kelainan pada sistem urinary, dengan melihat kerja ginjal dan sistem urinary pasien. </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pemeriksaan ini dipergunakan untuk mengetahui gejala seperti kencing darah (hematuri) dan sakit pada daerah punggung.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Dengan IVP dokter dapat mengetahui adanya kelainan pada sistem tractus urinary dari :</span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">batu ginjal </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">pembesaran prostat</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 12pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="">Tumor pada ginjal, ureter dan blass.<a name="more"></a></span></li></ul></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">3. Indikasi Pemeriksaan IVP</span></b><span style=""></span></p> <ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Renal agenesis</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Polyuria </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">BPH (benign prostatic hyperplasia)</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Congenital anomali : </span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">duplication of ureter n renal pelvis</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">ectopia kidney</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">horseshoe kidney </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">malroration</span></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Hydroneprosis </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pyelonepritis </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Renal hypertention</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">4. Kontra Indikasi</span></b><span style=""></span></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Alergi terhadap media kontras</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pasien yang mempunyai kelainan atau penyakit jantung</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pasien dengan riwayat atau dalam serangan jantung </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Multi myeloma</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Neonatus </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Diabetes mellitus tidak terkontrol/parah</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pasien yang sedang dalam keadaan kolik</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Hasil ureum dan creatinin tidak normal</span></li></ul> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">5. Persiapan Pemeriksaan</span></b><span style=""></span></p> <ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">Persiapan Pasien</span></b><span style=""> </span></li><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pasien makan bubur kecap saja sejak 2 hari (48 jam) sebelum pemeriksaan BNO-IVP dilakukan.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Pasien tidak boleh minum susu, makan telur serta sayur-sayuran yang berserat.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Jam 20.00 pasien minum garam inggris (magnesium sulfat), dicampur 1 gelas air matang untuk urus-urus, disertai minum air putih 1-2 gelas, terus puasa.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Selama puasa pasien dianjurkan untuk tidak merokok dan banyak bicara guna meminimalisir udara dalam usus. </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Jam 08.00 pasien datang ke unit radiologi untuk dilakukan pemeriksaan, dan sebelum pemeriksaan dimulai pasien diminta buang air kecil untuk mengosongkan blass.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="">Yang terakhir adalah penjelasan kepada keluarga pasien mengenai prosedur yang akan dilakukan dan penandatanganan informed consent.</span></li></ol><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><b><span style="">Persiapan Media Kontras</span></b><span style=""></span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="">o<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Media kontras yang digunakan adalah yang berbahan iodium, dimana jumlahnya disesuaikan dengan berat badan pasien, yakni 1-2 cc/kg berat badan.<b> </b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0cm; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0cm; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style=""><span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Persiapan Alat dan Bahan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">0.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Peralatan Steril</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Wings needle No. 21 G (1 buah)</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Spuit 20 cc (2 buah)</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kapas alcohol atau wipes </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tourniquet </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 72pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Peralatan Un-Steril</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Plester</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Marker R/L dan marker waktu</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Media kontras Iopamiro (± 40 – 50 cc)</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Obat-obatan emergency (antisipasi alergi media kontras)</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 108pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="">§<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Baju pasien</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">6. Prosedur Pemeriksaan BNO-IVP</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Lakukan pemeriksaan BNO posisi AP, untuk melihat persiapan pasien</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jika persiapan pasien baik/bersih, suntikkan media kontras melalui intravena 1 cc saja, diamkan sesaat untuk melihat reaksi alergis.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Jika tidak ada reaksi alergis penyuntikan dapat dilanjutkan dengan memasang alat compressive ureter terlebih dahulu di sekitar SIAS kanan dan kiri.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Setelah itu lakukan foto nephogram dengan posisi AP supine 1 menit setelah injeksi media kontras untuk melihat masuknya media kontras ke collecting sistem, terutama pada pasien hypertensi dan anak-anak.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Lakukan foto 5 menit post injeksi dengan posisi AP supine menggunakan ukuran film 24 x 30 untuk melihat pelviocaliseal dan ureter proximal terisi media kontras.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto 15 menit post injeksi dengan posisi AP supine menggunakan film 24 x 30 mencakup gambaran pelviocalyseal, ureter dan bladder mulai terisi media kontras</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto 30 menit post injeksi dengan posisi AP supine melihat gambaran bladder terisi penuh media kontras. Film yang digunakan ukuran 30 x 40.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Setelah semua foto sudah dikonsulkan kepada dokter spesialis radiologi, biasanya dibuat foto blast oblique untuk melihat prostate (umumnya pada pasien yang lanjut usia). </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Yang terakhir lakukan foto <i>post void</i> dengan posisi AP supine atau erect untuk melihat kelainan kecil yang mungkin terjadi di daerah bladder. Dengan posisi erect dapat menunjukan adanya ren mobile (pergerakan ginjal yang tidak normal) pada kasus pos hematuri.</span></li></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">7. Kriteria Gambar</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></p> <ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto 5 menit post injeksi</span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tampak kontras mengisi ginjal kanan dan kiri.</span></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto 15 menit post injeksi </span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tampak kontras mengisi ginjal, ureter.</span></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto 30 menit post injeksi (full blass)</span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tampak blass terisi penuh oleh kontras </span></li></ul><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Foto Post Mixi </span></li><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tampak blass yang telah kosong.</span></li></ul></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; line-height: normal;" align="center"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNr8HZK5HHKq9iX6jj4IBPUJBP1A_gvNeTPE43oJnWQIXw1u-tSeWXaNxkN1VUaj0bgwGoC67iBI6Hz5wVSidgMW7mgMeiHg5sxHpDGy9BV898Iy18WRIcg66kpdSbFX56UpDStnyEC7Q/s1600-h/1.jpg"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><span style=""><img src="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/User/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.jpg" alt="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNr8HZK5HHKq9iX6jj4IBPUJBP1A_gvNeTPE43oJnWQIXw1u-tSeWXaNxkN1VUaj0bgwGoC67iBI6Hz5wVSidgMW7mgMeiHg5sxHpDGy9BV898Iy18WRIcg66kpdSbFX56UpDStnyEC7Q/s400/1.jpg" border="0" width="400" height="355" /></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -18pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="">8.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Perawatan Lanjutan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tidak ada perawatan khusus yang diberikan kepada pasien setelah menjalani pemeriksaan BNO-IVP ini.</span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><i><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: rgb(102, 0, 0);">Catatan :</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: rgb(102, 0, 0);"></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">KELEBIHAN DAN KEKURANGAN IVP</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kelebihan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></li></ul> <ol start="1" type="1"><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Bersifat invasif. </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">IVP memberikan gambaran dan informasi yang jelas, sehingga dokter dapat mendiagnosa dan memberikan pengobatan yang tepat mulai dari adanya batu ginjal hingga kanker tanpa harus melakukan pembedahan</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Diagnosa kelainan tentang kerusakan dan adanya batu pada ginjal dapat dilakukan.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Radiasi relative rendah 5. relative aman</span></li></ol></ol> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></p> <ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Kekurangan</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></li></ul> <ol start="1" type="1"><ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Selalu ada kemungkinan terjadinya kanker akibat paparan radiasi yang diperoleh.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Dosis efektif pemeriksaan IVP adalah </span><a href="http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/glossary/glossary1.cfm?gid=369"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: blue;">3 </span></a><a href="http://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/glossary/glossary1.cfm?gid=369"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; color: blue;">mSv</span></a><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">, sama dengan rata-rata radiasi yang diterima dari alam dalam satu tahun.</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Penggunaan media kontras dalam IVP dapat menyebabkan efek alergi pada pasien, yang menyebabkan pasien harus mendapatkan pengobatan lanjut. </span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; line-height: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Tidak dapat dilakukan pada wanita hamil.</span></li></ol></ol> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=""> </span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <h1>Pemeriksaan BNO/IVP pada Penderita Hidronefrosis</h1> <p class="MsoNormal">Dibuat oleh: Aulia Fakhrina,Modifikasi terakhir pada Thu 30 of Sep, 2010 [22:24 UTC]</p> <p><i><span style="" lang="PT-BR">ABSTRAK</span></i></p> <p><i><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Hidronefrosis adalah dilatasi piala dan perifer ginjal pada satu atau kedua ginjal akibat adanya obstruksi pada aliran normal urin menyebabkan urin mengalir balik sehingga tekanan diginjal meningkat. Pasien mungkin asimtomatik jika awitan terjadi secara bertahap. Obstruksi akut dapat menimbulkan rasa sakit dipanggul dan pinggang. Jika terjadi infeksi maja disuria, menggigil, demam dan nyeri tekan serta piuria akan terjadi. Hematuri dan piuria mungkin juga ada. Jika kedua ginjal kena maka tanda dan gejala gagal ginjal kronik akan muncul. BNO/IVP merupakan salah satu pemeriksaan radiologi yang dapat dilakukan untuk menegakkan diagnosis hidronefrosis karena dapat memvisualisasi ginjal dan ureter setelah injeksi intravena bahan kontras. Pada kasus ini, hidronefrosis terjadi pada laki-laki usia 38 tahun yang mengeluhkan nyeri pada pinggang kiri terus menerus. Hasil dari pemeriksaan BNO/IVP menunjukkan adanya Hidronefrosis et causa Ureterolithiasis 1/3 proximal Sn. </span></i></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> </span></p> <p><i><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Kata kunci : BNO/IVP, Hidronefrosis</span></i></p> <p><i><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> </span></i></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">KASUS</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Seorang laki-laki berusia 38 tahun, dirawat sejak 5 hari sebelum dilakukan pemeriksaan radiologi dengan keluhan nyeri pinggang kiri berlangsung terus menerus dengan tingkatan nyeri yang kadangkala berat dan di lain saat berkurang. Pasien juga sering merasakan mual dan pegal di pinggang. Jika buang air kecil pasien sering merasakan nyeri. Pasien mengaku tidak pernah ada keluar pasir atau batu saat buang air kecil, tidak pernah mengalami air kencing berwarna merah atau warna teh. Buang air kecil tetap lancar dan jumlahnya biasa. Pada pemeriksaan abdomen, terdapat nyeri ketok ginjal kiri. Hasil dari pemeriksaan BNO/IVP menunjukkan adanya Hidronefrosis et causa Ureterolithiasis 1/3 proximal Sn. </span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> </span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">DIAGNOSIS</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Hidronefrosis et causa Ureterolithiasis 1/3 proximal Sn</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> </span></p> <p> </p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">DISKUSI</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Pada kasus ini hidronefrosis terjadi pada seorang laki-laki berusia 38 tahun yang datang dengan keluhan nyeri pinggang kiri yang berlangsung terus-menerus dengan tingkatan nyeri yang kadangkala berat dan di lain saat berkurang. Pasien juga sering merasakan pegal di pinggang. Jika buang air kecil pasien sering merasakan nyeri. Pasien mengaku tidak pernah ada keluar pasir atau batu saat buang air kecil, tidak pernah mengalami air kencing berwarna merah atau warna teh. Pada pasien ini dilakukan pemeriksaan BNO/IVP untuk menegakkan diagnosis.</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Hidronefrosis adalah dilatasi piala dan perifer ginjal pada satu atau kedua ginjal akibat adanya obstruksi pada aliran normal urin menyebabkan urin mengalir balik sehingga tekanan diginjal meningkat. Pelebaran pelvis renalis yang berlangsung lama dapat menghalangi kontraksi otot ritmis yang secara normal mengalirkan air kemih ke kandung kemih. Jaringan fibrosa lalu akan menggantikan kedudukan jaringan otot yang normal di dinding ureter sehingga terjadi kerusakan yang menetap.</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="SV">IVP merupakan suatu tipe X-Ray yang memvisualisasi ginjal dan ureter setelah injeksi intravena bahan kontras. Setelah injeksi, kontras bergerak melalui ginjal, ureter dan vesica urinaria. Foto diambil dalam beberapa interval waktu untuk melihat pergerakan ini. IVP dapat memperlihatkan ukuran, bentuk, dan struktur ginjal, ureter dan VU. Juga untuk mengevaluasi fungsi ginjal, deteksi penyakit ginjal, batu ureter dan VU, pembesaran prostat, trauma dan tumor.</span></p> <p><b><span style="" lang="SV">Indikasi IVP</span></b></p> <p>- Flank pain</p> <p>- Hematuria</p> <p>- Frequency</p> <p>- Dysuria</p> <p>- Suspected renal calculus</p> <p>- Renal tumor</p> <p><b>Resiko pemeriksaan</b></p> <p>- Resiko paparan radiasi sangat rendah</p> <p><span style="" lang="FI">- Paparan radiasi selama kehamilan dapat menyebabkan kecacatan</span></p> <p>- Dapat menyebabkan alergi terhadap kontras</p> <p>- Dapat menyebabkan gagal ginjal, terutama jika pasien mengkonsumsi Glucophage</p> <p><span style="" lang="SV">- Komplikasi lain yang tak berkaitan dengan kontras</span></p> <p><b>Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi hasil pemeriksaan</b></p> <p>- Feses atau udara di colon</p> <p>- Aliran darah yang sedikit ke ginjal</p> <p>- Barium di saluran cerna dari prosedur sebelumnya</p> <p><b>Persiapan</b></p> <p><span style="" lang="FI">- Pemeriksaan ureum kreatinin (Kreatinin maksimum 2)</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="FI">- Malam sebelum pemeriksaan pasien diberi laksansia untuk membersihkan kolon dari feses yang menutupi daerah ginjal</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="FI">- Pasien tidak diberi minum mulai jam 22.00 malam sebelum pemeriksaan untuk mendapatkan keadaan dehidrasi ringan </span></p> <p><span style="" lang="FI">- Keesokan harinya pasien harus puasa, mengurangi bicara dan merokok untuk menghindari gangguan udara usus saat pemeriksaan</span></p> <p>- Pada bayi dan anak diberi minum yang mengandung karbonat untuk mendistensikan lambung dan gas.</p> <p>- Pada pasien rawat inap dapat dilakukan lavement</p> <p>- Skin test subkutan</p> <p><b>Pelaksanaan</b></p> <ol start="1" type="1"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">Pasien diminta mengosongkan kandung kemih</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">Dilakukan foto BNO</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">Injeksi kontras IV (setelah cek tensi dan cek alergi), beberapa saat dapat terjadi flushing, rasa asin di lidah, sakit kepala ringan, gatal, mual/muntah</li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="" lang="PT-BR">Diambil foto pada menit ke-5, 15, 30 dan 45</span></li></ol> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> - Menit ke-5 : menilai nefroram dan mungkin system pelvicalices (SPC)</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="PT-BR"> </span><span style="" lang="DA">- Menit ke-15 : menilai SPC sampai dengan kedua ureter</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA"> - Menit ke-30 : Menilai ureterovesico junction</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA"> - Menit ke-45 : menilai vesica urinaria</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA"> </span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA">KESIMPULAN</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA">Pada kasus ini, dilakukan pemeriksaan BNO/IVP yang menunjukkan hasil terdapat pelebaran PCS Ren Sinistra dan itu berarti telah terjadi hidronefrosis pada ren sinistra pasien.</span></p> <p><span style="" lang="DA"> </span></p> <p>DAFTAR PUSTAKA</p> <p>1. <span style="" lang="IN">Malueka, RG. 2008. Radiologi Diagnostik. Pustaka Cendekia Press. Yogyakarta.</span></p> <p>2. Patel, P. R. 2007. Lecture Notes Radiologi, edisi kedua. Jakarta: Erlangga.</p> <p>3. Purnomo,B.B. 2005. Dasar-dasar Urologi, edisi kedua. Jakarta: Sagung Seto.</p> <p>4. Sutton, D. 1995. Buku Ajar Radiologi untuk Mahasiswa Kedokteran, edisi kelima. Jakarta : Hipokrates.</p> <p> </p> <p>PENULIS</p> <p>Aulia Fakhrina. Program Profesi Pendidikan Dokter. Bagian Radiologi RSUD Salatiga (2010).</p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> <p class="MsoNormal"> </p> </m:defjc></m:rmargin></m:lmargin></m:dispdef></m:smallfrac>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-80302543817273627462010-12-01T22:29:00.000-08:002010-12-01T22:39:16.322-08:00<span style="font-family: times new roman;">jembatan persahabatan terbangun dalam waktu yang tak bisa dibilang singkat...<br />diawali di ruangan sempit di sudut kampus...<br />kepala botak jilbab hitam...<br />jalan merangkak di bawah tekanan teriakan senior...<br />((taik....emang kita budak apa??? hehehehe))<br />wajah-wajah lugu penuh mimpi dibilas ketulusan dan senyuman lucu...<br />hidung mancung, hidung pesek,rambut kriwil,badan besar, kurus kering,pantat tepos, hitam legam, gigi keriting...<br />semua menyatu dalam satu piring kebersamaan...<br />membangun pondasi sebuah hubungan kekeluargaan forever never die...<br />bersama kita tertawa...<br />bersama kita kuat...<br /></span>RadZOr Companyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12528230648669593449noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7635749693553387271.post-394207378837550222010-09-18T07:25:00.001-07:002010-09-18T07:25:22.575-07:00<table class="content" align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="720"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" height="770"><table class="content" width="100%"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" align="left" height="302" valign="top"><div align="justify"><table align="right" width="90%"><tbody><tr><td valign="top"><div align="justify"><table width="100%"><tbody><tr><td width="63%" height="162" valign="top"><div align="justify"><h1>ltrasound</h1> <p><br /> X-Ray Medical Group provides you with years of professional experience in ultrasound and a level of expertise unmatched in East San Diego County. Our ultrasound services cover a full range of conditions and is provided at a number of our convenient <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/locations-ct-mri-sharp-grossmont-hospital.htm">locations</a>.</p> </div></td> <td align="right" width="37%" valign="top"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-ultrasound1.jpg" alt="Ultrasound Sharp Grossmont Hospital Radiology La Mesa and Santee California East San Diego County" width="160" height="160" /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Ultrasound</h2> <p>Ultrasound is a real-time imaging method, meaning the images are obtained continuously in a manner similar to a video camera. Real-time ultrasound can show the movement of internal tissues and organs, such as the flow of blood in arteries and veins, or the movement of a baby in a mother’s uterus. Ultrasound, otherwise known as ultrasonography or sonography, is a procedure in which sound waves are used to show structures in the human body. The sound waves reflect off of internal organs and other anatomic structures to create images, which a Radiologist can use to determine if the internal anatomy looks normal or abnormal. No ionizing radiation is used in an ultrasound procedure. </p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Hysterosonography</h2> <p>Hysterosonography is often used to investigate uterine abnormalities in women who experience infertility or multiple miscarriages. It is also a valuable technique in the evaluation of unexplained vaginal bleeding. Such conditions can result from uterine abnormalities such as congenital defects, masses, adhesions (or scarring), polyps, fibroids or atrophy. Hysterosonography is performed by inserting a small catheter into the uterus filling it with sterile saline. When the saline is inserted, it pushes the walls of the endometrium apart and allows a clear picture to be formed of its shape and size. If any part of the endometrial cavity appears irregular, it should be apparent to the Radiologist or sonographer. </p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Obstetric ultrasound</h2> <p>Obstetric ultrasound refers to the specialized use of sound waves to visualize and thus determine the condition of a pregnant woman and her embryo or fetus. Obstetric ultrasound can determine and establish the following: </p> <ul type="square"><li class="content">To estimate the age of the pregnancy. </li><li class="content">To diagnose congenital abnormalities. </li><li class="content">To evaluate the position of the fetus. </li><li class="content">To evaluate the position of the placenta. </li><li class="content">To determine if there are multiple pregnancies. </li><li class="content">To determine the amount of amniotic fluid around the fetus. </li><li class="content">To check for opening or shortening of the cervix or mouth of the womb. </li></ul> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Abdominal Ultrasound </h2> <p>Ultrasound imaging is used extensively for evaluating the liver, kidneys, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen and blood vessels of the abdomen. Because it provides real-time images, it can also be used to:</p> <ul type="square"><li class="content">Guide procedures such as needle biopsies in which needles are used to sample cells from organs for laboratory testing. </li><li class="content">Help a physician determine the source of many abdominal pains, such as an inflamed appendix or stones in the gall bladder or kidney. </li><li class="content">Help identify the cause for enlargement of an abdominal organ. </li></ul> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Doppler ultrasound </h2> <p>Doppler ultrasound is a special type of ultrasound study that examines major blood vessels. These images can help the physician to see and evaluate:</p> <ul type="square"><li class="content">Blockages to blood flow, such as clots. </li><li class="content">Build-up of plaque inside the vessel. </li><li class="content">Congenital malformation. </li></ul> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Pediatric Abdominal Ultrasound</h2> <p>In children, an abdominal ultrasound image is a useful way of examining internal organs including the appendix, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, intestines, kidneys and bladder. Ultrasound is particularly valuable for evaluating abdominal pain in young children. </p> <blockquote> <h3> Ultrasound imaging can:</h3> <ul><li class="content">Help a physician determine the source of abdominal pain, such as stones, abscesses or an inflamed appendix. </li><li class="content">Guide procedures such as needle biopsies, in which needles are used to sample cells from organs for laboratory testing. </li><li class="content">Help identify the cause for enlargement of an abdominal organ. </li><li class="content">Localize abnormal fluid in the abdomen. </li></ul> <h3>How should my Child prepare for an ultrasound?</h3> <p>Your child should be dressed in comfortable, loose-fitting clothing for an ultrasound exam. Other preparation depends on the type of examination. For some scans, your doctor may ask you to withhold food and drink for as many as 12 hours before your child's appointment. For others, you may be asked to have your child drink up to six glasses of water two hours prior to the exam and avoid urinating so that his or her bladder is full when the scan begins. Sedation is rarely needed for ultrasound examinations. </p> </blockquote> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Breast</h2> <p>The primary use of ultrasound today is to help diagnose breast abnormalities detected by a physician during a physical exam and to characterize potential abnormalities seen on mammography.<br /> <br /> Ultrasound imaging can help to determine if an abnormality is solid (which may be a non-cancerous lump of tissue or a cancerous tumor) or fluid-filled (such as a benign cyst). Ultrasound can also help show additional features of the abnormal area.</p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Carotid</h2> <p>The most frequent reason for a carotid ultrasound exam is to detect narrowing, or stenosis, of the carotid artery, which substantially increases the risk of stroke. If your primary care physician detects high blood pressure or a carotid bruit (pronounced <em>brU</em><em>-E</em>)—an abnormal sound in the neck that is heard with the stethoscope—carotid ultrasound may be needed. Other risk factors calling for ultrasound are advanced age, diabetes, elevated blood cholesterol, and a family history of stroke or heart disease. </p> <p>If the exam shows narrowing of one or both carotid arteries, your physician may suggest medication, noninvasive angiography, or an operation to restore normal blood flow to the brain. In this way a stroke may be prevented. </p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Pelvis</h2> <p>A pelvic ultrasound usually focuses on the bladder and the prostate gland. Ultrasound images are captured in real-time, so they can show movement of internal tissues and organs, such as the flow of blood in arteries and veins.</p> <p>For women, pelvic ultrasound is most often used to examine the uterus and ovaries and, during pregnancy, to monitor the health and development of the embryo or fetus.</p> <p>A pelvic ultrasound exam can help identify stones, tumors and other disorders in the urinary bladder in men and women. Because ultrasound provides real-time images, it can also be used to guide procedures, like needle biopsies, in which a needle is used to sample cells from an abnormal area for laboratory testing. Doppler sonography is another method of ultrasound that can be used to evaluate blood flow in pelvic vessels.</p> <blockquote> <h3> How should I prepare for my pelvis ultrasound?</h3> <p>You should wear comfortable, loose-fitting clothing for your ultrasound exam. For some scans you may be asked to drink up to six glasses of water two hours prior to your exam, so your bladder is full when the scanning begins. A full bladder helps with visualization of the uterus, ovaries and bladder wall. </p> </blockquote> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Prostate</h2> <p>Prostate ultrasound is used to detect possible disorders within a man's prostate gland. Ultrasound images can indicate when the prostate is enlarged or when there is an abnormal growth that might be cancer.</p> <p>ultrasound of the prostate may be warranted if a blood test result is elevated or if a nodule is felt by a physician during a routine physical exam or prostate cancer screening exam. An ultrasound exam can also indicate other types of prostate conditions, such as inflammation of the prostate, or it can be used to help diagnose the reasons for a man's infertility.</p> <blockquote> <h3>How should I prepare for my prostate ultrasound?</h3> <p>You should wear comfortable, loose-fitting clothing for your ultrasound exam. An enema is taken two to four hours before the ultrasound to clean out the bowel. Follow your doctor's instructions on bowel preparation. A full bladder helps with visualization of the prostate, so you may be asked to drink up to six glasses of water prior to your exam.</p> </blockquote> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Scrotum</h2> <p>Ultrasound imaging of the scrotum is the primary imaging method used to evaluate disorders of the testicles and surrounding areas. It is used when a patient is experiencing pain or swelling in the scrotum, a mass has been felt by the patient or doctor, or there's been trauma to the scrotal area. </p> <p>Scrotal ultrasound imaging can help determine the cause of testicular pain or swelling. Some of the problems ultrasound imaging can identify include: inflammation of the scrotum, an absent or undescended testicle, testicular torsion, abnormal blood vessels or a lump or tumor.</p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Thyroid</h2> <p>An ultrasound examination of the neck to help diagnosis a lump in the thyroid or a thyroid that is not functioning properly. The thyroid gland is located in front of the neck just below the Adam's apple and is shaped like a butterfly, with two lobes on either side of the neck connected by a narrow band of tissue.</p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Vascular</h2> <p>Utrasound imaging of the body's veins and arteries can help our Radiologist see and evaluate blockages to blood flow, such as clots in veins and plaque in arteries.</p> <p>Ultrasound of the vascular system also provides a fast, noninvasive means of identifying blockages of blood flow in the neck arteries to the brain that might produce a stroke or mini-stroke.</p> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Venous Extremities</h2> <p>The most common reason for a venous ultrasound exam is to search for blood clots, especially in the veins of the leg. </p> <blockquote> <h3>Other reasons to do a venous ultrasound study:</h3> <ul><li class="content">Find the cause of long-standing leg swelling. In people with Varicose veins, a common condition, the valves that keep blood flowing in the right direction may not work well, and venous ultrasound can help the surgeon decide how best to deal with this condition. </li><li class="content">Aid placement of a needle or catheter in a large interior vein. Sonography can help locate the exact site of the vein and avoid complications, such as bleeding or air in the chest cavity. </li><li class="content">Map out the veins in the leg or arm so that segments may be removed and used to bypass an area of disease. An example is using pieces of vein from the leg to surgically bypass narrowed coronary arteries. </li><li class="content">Examine a blood vessel graft used for dialysis not working as expected; an area of narrowing in the graft may be responsible. </li></ul> </blockquote> <h2><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/divider1.jpg" width="510" height="13" /><br /> Guided Breast Biopsy</h2> <p>When an ultrasound examination cannot characterize the nature of a breast abnormality; a physician may choose to perform an ultrasound-guided biopsy.<br /> <br /> A breast biopsy involves removing some cells—either surgically or in a less invasive procedure involving a needle—from the suspicious area in the breast and examining them under a microscope to determine a diagnosis.<br /> <br /> Ultrasound-guidance is used to assist physicians in obtaining tissue samples from the breast in three different biopsy procedures: a cyst aspiration, a fine needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy and a core needle (CN) biopsy. </p> </div></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p> </p> </div> <!-- InstanceEndEditable --></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" align="left" height="18" valign="top"><blockquote> <p><br /> [+] <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/locations-ct-mri-sharp-grossmont-hospital.htm">Find a Location</a><br /> [+] <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/services-radiology-sharp-hospital-san-diego.htm">See more services</a></p> <p> </p> </blockquote></td> </tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3" align="center" background="images/bk3.jpg" bgcolor="#c2cee7" valign="middle"> </td> <td align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" width="38%" valign="top"><table class="content" bordercolor="#cccccc" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="42%"><a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/diagnostic-imaging-grossmont-imaging-ca.htm"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-imaging.jpg" alt="San Diego Diagnostic Imaging" border="0" width="108" height="100" /></a></td> <td class="head2" align="left" bgcolor="#e9edf5" width="58%" valign="top">Diagnostic Imaging</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="content1" align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" height="88" valign="top"><p>X-Ray Medical offers a full range of diagnostic imaging services at our various outpatient and hospital based locations throughout San Diego. [<a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/diagnostic-imaging-grossmont-imaging-ca.htm">Read More</a>] </p></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> <td align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" width="39%" valign="top"><table class="content" bordercolor="#cccccc" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="42%"><a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/interventional-radiology-la-mesa-santee-grossmont-ca.htm"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-interventional.jpg" alt="San Diego Interventional Radiology" border="0" width="108" height="100" /></a></td> <td class="head2" align="left" bgcolor="#e9edf5" width="58%" valign="top">Interventional</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="content1" align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" height="88" valign="top">X-Ray Medical specializes in Interventional Radiology procedures. 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[<a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/womens-imaging-interventional-san-diego-county.htm">Read More</a>] </td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> <td align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" width="39%" valign="top"><table class="content" bordercolor="#cccccc" width="100%" height="113"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="42%"><a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/about-x-ray-medical-group-grossmont-imaging-ca.htm"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-choose.jpg" alt="X-Ray Medical Group - Top Radiology Services in San Diego County" border="0" width="108" height="100" /></a></td> <td class="head2" align="left" bgcolor="#e9edf5" width="58%" valign="top">Why Choose Us?</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="content1" align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" height="89" valign="top"><p>Top 10 Reasons to choose X-Ray Medical Group for your radiology care. [<a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/about-x-ray-medical-group-grossmont-imaging-ca.htm">Read More</a>]</p></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> <tr> <td align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" valign="top"><table class="content" bordercolor="#cccccc" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="42%"><a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/varicose-veins-treatment-san-diego-la-mesa-ca.htm"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-varicose-veins.jpg" alt="Varicose Veins - Treatments in San Diego" border="0" width="108" height="100" /></a></td> <td class="head2" align="left" bgcolor="#e9edf5" width="58%" valign="top">Varicose Veins?</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="content1" align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" height="74" valign="top">X-Ray Medical offers RF Vein Ablations for the treatment of varicose veins. This technique has 95% efficacy that ...<br /> [<a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/varicose-veins-treatment-san-diego-la-mesa-ca.htm">Read More</a>] </td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> <td align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" width="39%" valign="top"><table class="content" bordercolor="#cccccc" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" width="42%"><a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/MRI-sharp-grossmont-san-diego-santee-ca.htm"><img src="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/images/pic-mri1.jpg" alt="Open MRI San Diego Imaging Center" border="0" width="108" height="100" /></a></td> <td class="head2" align="left" bgcolor="#e9edf5" width="58%" valign="top">Open MRI </td> </tr> <tr> <td class="content1" align="left" bgcolor="#f4f4f4" height="74" valign="top">Our Open MRI allows you complete comfort and relaxation with superior quality MRI technology. Learn how you can ... [<a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/MRI-sharp-grossmont-san-diego-santee-ca.htm"> Read More</a>] </td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" align="center" bgcolor="#ffffff" valign="middle"><div align="center">© X-Ray Medical Group, Inc. All Rights Reserved - <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/index.htm">XRayMedicalGroup.com</a> | <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/services-radiology-sharp-hospital-san-diego.htm">Services</a> | <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/locations-ct-mri-sharp-grossmont-hospital.htm">Locations</a> | <a href="http://www.xraymedicalgroup.com/radiologist-sharp-grossmont-hospital-san-diego.htm">Physicians</a><br /> San Diego Imaging Centers and Radiologists at Sharp Grossmont Hospital in La Mesa and Santee CA. 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